by V Van Dut · 2017 — the changes in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the health co-benefits from two new mass rapid transit (MRT) lines in Greater Kuala Lumpur,. Malaysia.
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 1 ACCESSIBILITY AND CONNECTIVITY CHALLEN GES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA by Vo Van Dut MIT -UTM Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program Massachusetts Institute of Technology Abstract Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) is a modern public transportation mode, involving highway lanes or rights -of-way dedicated exclusively to specially designed buses. MRT is one of the most effective ways to reduce the use of private vehicles for daily travel in big cities. The success of MRT, however, depends on the reliability of service, the speed at which vehicles can travel, and their overall attractiveness to passengers. This study of the introduction of MRT in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, makes clear that the level of accessibility and connectivity of MRT are vital. The study investigates how accessibility and connectivity affect the firide experiencefl of MRT users. Survey results suggest that: 1) Feeder bus services in residential areas are crucial; 2) Lack of connecti on with other public transport modes can undermine interest in switching to MRT; 3) Multi -mode fare passes that link MRT to other transit connections are necessary; 4) Limited park and ride space and bicycle parking at MRT stations, along with the cost of park ing, can inhibit MRT use; and 5) The availability of commercial services like shopping in and around MRT stations can adversely affect potential MRT riders™ decision to use MRT. Results show that the average number of trips per MRT user depends primarily on the accessibility and connectivity of MRT stations. The paper offers policy recommendations aimed at encouraging more riders to reduce their reliance on private vehicles through increased use of MRT services.
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 2 Introduction Traffic congestion and pollutio n are two significant problems that confront many urban areas in Malaysia, including the capital region of Kuala Lumpur (KL). Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) can increase rail transportation opportunities by providing a premium quality service at a reasonable far e, when compared with other transport modes Šan option that a significant segment of KL™s population wants Šand by integrating many of the existing rail networks (Fouracre, Dunkerley, and Gardner 2003) . Furthermore, MRT expansion can reduce the number of travelers using private vehicles and hen ce alleviate the severe traffic congestion and pollution in the city. To meet customers™ needs, public transport services, especially MRT, must follow regular schedules; be safe and efficient; guarantee high -quality service; and use resources effectively. For an MRT system to achieve all of these qualities, both good accessibility and connectivity are necessary. Good accessibility facilitates the convenient use of MRT services by people with various needs and circumstances. Good connectivity provides servi ces between users™ origin and destination, and offers return trips at times that suit users™ schedules. Having recognized the potential benefits of MRT, Malaysian transportation authorities undertook the first MRT project in 2010, with the first entire Li ne MRT in KL beginning operations in July 2017. As with any new public transport service introduced to the public, however, the MRT in its initial stages faces challenges. The objective of this study is to investigate those challenges Šparticularly the chal lenges of accessibility and connectivity Šand how they affect users™ MRT experience. By documenting these challenges and offering policy implications, we hope to help developing cities improve their planning of future MRT systems. The next section of this s tudy provides background on the role of Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) in public transport, and its contributions to reducing congestion and pollution in cities. This is followed by a review of the importance of accessibility and connectivity for the success of an MRT system. Next is an overview of the context for MRT in Malaysia. This is followed by a summary of my research methodology. In the study™s final section, I present findings and make policy recommendations. Background: Mass Rapid Transit What is mass rapid transit? Mass rapid transit is defined as fimodes of urban transport (both road and rail based) that carry large volumes of passengers quicklyfl
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 3 (Fouracre, Dunkerley, and Gardner 2003) . These modes tend to be located along well -defined corridors connecting suburbs to city centers, and have reserved right -of-way for part or all of their route. MRT systems have been categorized according to the type of technology used and their degree of segregation from traffic. MRT consists of a spectrum of modes of urban public transport that apply speci fic fixed -track or exclusive and separated use of a potentially common -user road track. The role and form of MRT, of course, depends on the city context: its size, income level, asset base, institutions, existing transport systems, and other cultural and b ehavioral factors (Rahman 2008) . MRT systems include several transport modes in both road and rail. According to Fouracre et al. (2003), the most common MRT systems inc lude buses using dedicated rights -of-way (ROW); tramways using light, electrically powered cars on ROW; Light Rapid Transit (LRT) that employs a fully segregated and often grade -separated ROW and advanced control systems; metros using fully segregated, and grade -separated, track that may be elevated or underground. Suburban rail tends to be part of a larger rail network, often at grade but separated from road traffic. In this study, I focus on metros, which employ very advanced control systems that allow hi gh-frequency operations. They are also made up of multiple units of high -capacity fiheavyfl cars. Although metros are the most expensive type of system, they provide high levels of speed and frequency in their service. The rest of this study uses the term fiM RTfl to imply fimetro.fl reduce traffic congestion Most cities in the developing world have very limited resources to cope with the high levels of public transport demand they experience. The selection of t he most appropriate mass transit mode can be difficult, in part because there are many pressures on civic leaders to favor one system over another. Several previous studies indicate that MRT can offer a high level of energy savings and cleanliness, making it one of the most favored types of transport modes (Rahman 2008; Li 2013) . MRT has been adopted in major cities around the world (e.g., Singapore, Hong Kong). Many experts believe th at MRT can reduce congestion, improve quality of life through reducing pollution, and reduce fuel consumption by private vehicles (Vanany et al. 2015) . In addition, many scholars also point out that MRT has other benefits such as high capacity, fast travel times and high freque ncy, and is designed to stop at many stations in urban centers).
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 4 MRT also provides a premium quality service at a premium fare, compared with buses. This segments the travel market, and results in ficompetingfl bus services, which are used by lower -income t ravelers. The fee to ride MRT is in part determined by the competing bus services, and is designed to attract premium bus passengers who would otherwise take express/air -conditioned/guaranteed seating buses, as well as a large number of lower middle -income bus passengers. Only if it attracts multiple segments of bus ridership is the metro likely to attract the mass ridership that its high cost requires. Apart from these benefits, an MRT system holds the potential not only to significantly leverage an exist ing inadequate rail network, but also to integrate existing rail networks. For all of these reasons and more, MRT is deemed as a crucial component to secure long term advances in public transport Šor at least to stabilize the share of people traveling by pu blic rather than private transport (How 1990) . As a result, MRT has become one of the most popular types of public transport in developing cities around the world. The role of M RT in reducing pollution As noted, a crucial role of MRT is its contribution to reducing pollution in cities. Experts indicate that an efficient, comfortable transport system can convince many people leave their vehicles at home and use the MRT to commute. Building an MRT system n ot only help commuters avoid traffic congestion, but also helps reduce air pollution (Fox 2000) . The driverless technology and well -ventilated stations located at key areas reduce commute time, and also help to decrease air pollution. Fox (2000) also states that as an MRT system replaces existing buses, it skews the traffic composition towards clean er vehicles and reduces vehicle -kilometers traveled. Overall, MRT can have a strategic impact upon the city form, leading to a denser urban form and a more sustainable development path (Fouracre, Dunkerley, and Gardner 2003) . Empirically, Kaho et al. (2008) estimate that at current levels of use, public transit services in the United States such as MRT and commuter trains avoid emissions of at least 6.9 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent Šby substituting for automobile travel and reducing traffic congestion Šand possibly much more by creating more accessible land use patterns (Kaho et al. 2008) . They estimate that a typical household could reduce its total greenhouse emissions by 25 -30 percent by shifting from two to one vehicles, as can occur if they move from an automobile -dependent community to transit -oriented development. One study Šdrawing on data from the National Transit Database combined with information from the United State Department of Energy and the United
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 5 State Environmental Protection Age ncy Šindicates that the use of public transportation offers a low -emissions alternative to driving (Hodges 2010) . Another national -level study, conducted by Kwan et al., estimates the changes in carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions and the health co – from two new mass rapid transit (MRT) lines in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Changes in CO2 and air pollutant emissions were estimated from motor vehicle activity based on the travel information collected from a survey. The result reveals that MRT lines would reduce 6 percent of CO 2 equivalent emission from private motor vehicles in Greater Kuala Lumpur, and provide important health co – (S. C. Kwan et al. 2017) . The importance of accessibility and connectivity to MRT Several previous works on public transport have focused on accessibility (Morris, Dumble, and Wigan 1979; Handy and Niemeier 1997; Polzin 1999; M. P. Kwan and Weber 2003; Zhu and Liu 2004; Wibowo and Olszews ki 2005; Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon 2012; Djurhuus et al. 2014; Papaioannou and Martinez 2015) and connectivity (Guo and Wilson 2011; Hadas and Ranjitkar 2012; Mishra, Welch, and Jha 2012; Welch and Mishra 2013; Papaioannou and Martinez 2015) . The review of this body of literature is composed of two parts. The first subsection offers discussion on the importance of accessibility for the development of public transport and the success of MRT in developing cities, while the second subsection covers the importance of connectivity. Accessibility Based on previous studies (Morris, Dumble, and Wigan 1979; Wibowo and Olszewski 2005; Papaioannou and Martinez 2015), accessibility in this context is defined as the ease with which activities may be reached from a given location by means of a particular m ode of transportation. MRT accessibility has become a major issue for authorities in many of the world™s large cities, because they aspire to shape the future through implementation of efficient mass transit systems. Several studies stress that accessibil ity plays an important role with respect to the success of public transportation and MRT systems. Papaioannoua and Martinez (2015) noted that one of the key factors affecting public transport mode choice of users is accessibility. Accessibility represents the potential of the user to perform his/her activities. Accessibility can be considered from two perspectives. The first is proximity relative to the points of access to the MRT system Šboth at
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 6 origin and destination Šwhich has been proven to be a key deci ding factor in the modal choice process (Givoni and Rietveld 2007; Moniruzzaman and Páez 2012) . The second is the ease of displacement considered in relation to cost (of time or tariff) to reach the desired activities. This is associated with the density , diversity , and design of the built environment, both at trip origin and destination Šsometimes referred to as the fi3Dsfl (Cervero and Kockelman 1997) . Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon (2012) found that providing suitable accessibility increased the use of MRT systems in Bangkok , because certain segments of the population (e.g. women, the elderly and disabled people) were able to take MRT easily (Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon 2012) . These authors note that women Šwho tend to have less access to MRT Šare likely to have multiple purposes as sociated with their trips. Good accessibility of a MRT system can help them achieve those multiple objectives. Many studies (Geertman and Ritsema Van Eck 1995; Handy and Niemeier 1997; Zhu and Liu 2004) use a potential gravity model to delineate accessibility into two elem ents: the activity element (spatial distribution and attraction of various activities), and the transportation element (travel distance, time, or cost to reach specific sites by certain transportation modes) (Figure 1). The greater accessibility is, the le ss time and money are spent in travel, and the more activities that can be reached in a given amount of time and within a certain budget (Zhu and Liu 2004; Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon 2012) . Hence, it is argued that maximizing the accessibility of MRT system is one of the fundamental goals of transportation planning and urban deve lopment Šwhich in turn facilitates the development and the success of MRT projects. Activity element Spatial distribution MRT accessibility Transportation element Time and cost for reaching specific sites by certain transportation modes Attraction of various activities Travel distance
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 8 routes to their destinations and Šin many cases Šachieve higher speeds, and may dissuade potential users from choosing public transport (Beimborn, Greenwald, and Jin 2003) . To sum up: Many scholars (Beimborn, Greenwald, and Jin 2003; A. (Avi) Ceder and Teh 2010) argue that for MRT to prevail in the competition for users, the system must good connectivity. Good connectivity is defined as a co nvenient and seamless system that reduces travel times, provides reliable connections, and ensures easy and safe transfers. Conversely, poor connections can cause passengers to stop using the MRT service (A. Ceder, Net, and Coriat 2009; Hadas and Ranjitkar 2012; Papaioannou and Martinez 2015) . When connectivity is poor, trips are lengthy and costly. In addition, weak segm ents of the public transport connectivity network will experience increased congestion and passenger accumulation at specific stations and stops, resulting in delays and passenger frustration (A. Ceder and Perera 2014) . For these reasons and more, Ceder et al. (2009) state that improving conne ctivity is a vital task in transit operations planning. Public transport context and MRT system in Malaysia Kuala Lumpur (KL), the capital city of Malaysia, is ranked as the second -most competitive global city in Southeast Asia by the Economist Intelligence Unit. The city is a center for the country™s finance, insurance, real estate, and media industries. It is Malaysia™s most populous city, with (in 2017) 7 million residents within its 243 square kilometers Ša population total that is projected to increase to 20 million by 2020. Greater Kuala Lumpur (also known as the Klang Valley) where the greatest percentage of Malaysia™s population resides, contributes 30 percent of the national gross domestic product (GDP) (S. C. Kwan et al. 2017) . Given the city™s and region™s economic importance, and in light of its growing population density, an adequate public transport system is key. Today™s system Šintended, in part, to minimiz e heavy traffic congestion in KLŠincludes a variety of services such as rapid bus transport (BRT), light rail transit (LRT), one monorail line, commuter rail (Keretapi Tanah Melayu, or KTM), an airport rail link, and an emerging MRT network. The MRT projec t is considered a crucial component of the Greater Kuala Lumpur National Key Economic Area, and the largest infrastructure project in the country. Line One of the MRT system is currently in operation, with Lines 2 and 3 now under construction. The range o f public transport modes that exist in KL poses the question of why MRT was chosen over other available options, such as
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 9 bus rapid transit. According to the Land Public Transport Master Plan, the KL Local Plan calls for the public transport modal share to increase from 18 percent to 40 percent by 2020. The Land Public Transport authority believes that the MRT project addresses several key challenges, such as urban sprawl due to population increase, poor existing intra -modal and inter -modal integration betwe en various public transport modes, and unsustainable growth in private transport demand. The project is intended to substantially expand rail network coverage and capacity; provide adequate connectivity between modes and rail lines; and run rail lines thro ugh high travel demand areas. In terms of connectivity, the MRT Lines in KL will have four interchange stations that would allow passengers to transfer between lines easily. In addition, the MRT in KL is intended to create an economically efficient urban e nvironment; improve productivity, and promote social equality and quality of life in the Klang Valley. In addition, the project™s proponents make the case that it will effect travel -time savings, reductions in vehicle operating costs, and reductions in acc idents (as rail is much safer than road transport). In addition, the reduction in vehicle emissions resulting from the shift from road to rail is expected to be substantial. Other benefits such as economic growth, job creation and increased tax revenues to the government are anticipated to continue during the latter phases of construction. The MRT project in Malaysia Špart of the country™s comprehensive National Transformation Programme Šis intended to propel Malaysia to developed -nation status by 2020. Three lines have been planned for the Klang Valley MRT Project. Line 1 is the main subject of this study (Figure 2): the 51 km MRT Sungai Buloh -Kajang (SBK) Line (known as MRT SBK Line). It originates in Sungai Buloh, located to the northwest of Kuala Lumpur, a nd runs through the city center before ending in Kajang, a rapidly developing town to the southeast of the city. The line runs underground for a distance of 9.5 km beneath the center of Kuala Lumpur, while the rest of the alignment is elevated. The SBK Lin e has 31 stations, of which seven are underground.
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 10 Figure 2. The 31 stations of the MRT SBK Line in Greater Kuala Lumpur Each train serving the line has four cars, accommodating a total of 1,200 passengers. The daily ridership is estimated to be abo ut 400,000 passengers. Trains run at a frequency of 3.5 minutes at peak hours. Figure 3 displays MRT ridership in Kuala Lumpur, as recorded since the first MRT Line began operating in December 2016. Figure 3 shows a significant increase in the number of pa ssengers between August and September, due to half prices fares offered during the Southeast Asian (SEA) Games leading up to Hari Merdeka, or Malaysian Independence Day, on August 31.
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ACCESSIB ILITY AND CONNECTIVI TY CHALLENGES OF MASS RAPID TRANSIT I N KUALA LUMPUR, MALA YSIA Vo Van Dut Malaysia Sustainable Cities Program, Working Paper Series © Vo Van Dut & Massachusetts Institute of Technology 201 7 11 Figure 3. 2 The second MRT line in KL is the Sungai Buloh -Serdang -Putrajaya Line (known as MRT SSP Line or MRT2), which will be 53 km long. Presently it is 10 percent complete, and is due to open in two phases in 2021 and 2022. The third line, known as the ficircle lin efl but still without a formal name, will a 40 -km to 50 -km loop. It is now in the feasibility -study stage. In terms of MRT project management, plan, and design, the Land Public Transport Commission (Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat, known as SPAD) plans , regulates, and enforces all matters related to land public transport in Peninsular Malaysia. It is, therefore, the supervising agency for the MRT project. A separate entity, Mass Rapid Transit Corporation Sdn Bhd (known as MRT Corp) was set up in 2011 to develop and own the assets of the MRT system. It is, in turn, fully owned by the Minister of Finance. MRT Corp is responsible for the procurement process, awarding of contracts, monitoring construction, dispute resolution, scheduling adherence, and compli ance with health, safety, security, and environment requirements. Finally, Prasarana Malaysia Berhad (Prasarana) is a 100 percent government -owned company set up by the Ministry of Finance that owns the assets of all multi -modal public transport in Malaysi a, as part of the government’s larger efforts to restructure the city’s public transport system. Prasarana acts as a co -operator of MRT. Research Methodolog y Data Collection 727,591 350,897 427,368 387,816 404,758 368,644 1,932,664 4,188,478 3,100,360 0500,0001,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,0003,000,0003,500,0004,000,0004,500,000
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