You are now ready to begin building a model of Introductions by writing a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided.
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1SampleUnit 1 How to Write an Introduction 1.1 Structure Until now, much of your science writing has focused on writing reports in which you simply described what you did and what you found. Although this will help you write the central ‘report’ sections (Methodology and Results) of a research paper or thesis, it doesn’t prepare you for writing an Introduction to a full-length research article; this is a new task that faces you once you move on to research writing. In practice, yo nd that you need to be certain about what you have done and what you have found in order to write the Introduction, and so the best time to write it will be a er you have written, or at least dra ed, the report sections. However, in this book, the structure of a research article is presented in the order in which it appears in a paper/thesis so that you can trace the connections between each part and see the sequence in which information is presented to the reader. You may want to start your Introduction by describing the problem you are trying to solve, or the aim of your work, but as you will see when you examine published work, this is not how most research papers begin — and therefore it is not the best way for you to begin. In order to help you write the Introduction to your own research, the model you build must answer the following three questions: • How do writers normally start the Introduction? • What type of information should be in my Introduction, and in what order? • How do writers normally end the Introduction? B875_Sample.indd 1B875_Sample.indd 19/3/2009 2:26:55 PM9/3/2009 2:26:55 PM
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2 SCIENCE RESEARCH WRITING Sample e rst thing you may notice about Fig. 1 is that it is symmetrical. is is because many of the things you need to do in the Introduction are done — in reverse order — in the Discussion/Conclusion. For example, you need to write an opening sentence which enables you and your reader to ‘get in’ or start your paper/thesis and you also need to ‘get out’ at the end of the Discussion/Conclusion by nding an acceptable way to end the paper/thesis. In addition, you must look for a way to interface with the central report section at the end of the Introduction, and again — in reverse — when you move out of the central section to start the Discussion/ Conclusion. Something else you should notice about the shape of the diagram is that it narrows towards the central report section, and widens a er it. is represents the way information is ordered in the Introduction and the Discussion/Conclusion: in the Introduction you start out by being fairly general and gradually narrow your focus, whereas the opposite is true in the Discussion/Conclusion. RESULTS(what youfound/saw) METHODOLOGY (what you did/used) ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION DISCUSSION/ CONCLUSION central report section e shape of a research article or thesis. B875_Sample.indd 2B875_Sample.indd 29/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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1. How to Write an Introduction 3 Sample e synthesis of exible polymer blends from polylactide and rubber Introduction 1 Polylactide (PLA) has received much attention in recent years due to its biodegradable properties, which o er important economic ts. 2 PLA is a polymer obtained from corn and is produced by the polymerisation of lactide. 3 It has many possible uses in the biomedical eld 1 and has also been investigated as a potential engineering material. 2,3 4 However, it has been found to be too weak under impact to be used commercially. 45 One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles 5 and there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modi cation of PLA. 6 For example, Penney et al. showed that PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques 6 and more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such composites. 7 7 However, although th ect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, 8 little attention has been paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component. 8 e present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting such a component. 9 On the basis of these criteria it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer blends using PLA and a hydrocarbon rubber (PI). 10 is combination of two mechanistically distinct polymerisations formed a novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI signi cantly increase exibility. Read the Introduction below. Don’t worry if the subject matter is not familiar or if you have culty understanding individual words, especially technical terms like polylactide. Just try to get a general understanding at this stage and familiarise yourself with the type of language used. B875_Sample.indd 3B875_Sample.indd 39/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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4 SCIENCE RESEARCH WRITING Sample1.2 Grammar and Writing Skills is section deals with four language areas which are important in the Introduction: TENSE PAIRS SIGNALLING LANGUAGE PASSIVE/ACTIVE USE PARAGRAPHING 1.2.1 Tense pairs Present Simple/Present Continuous In order to use tenses correctly in the Introduction, yo rst need to look at th erence between the way the Present Simple tense and the Present Continuous tense are used. Look at these two sentences: (a) I live in Beijing.Present Simple (b) I’m living in Beijing.Present Continuous (a) describes a permanent situation and (b) describes a temporary situation. Because of this, the Present Simple tense is used in science writing to state accepted facts and truths — but what qu es as an accepted fact or truth is o en, surprisingly, your decision. Sometimes the writer considers that research ndings have the status of a fact; in that case, s/he can decide to state them in the Present Simple, usually followed by the appropriate research reference. Here is an example from the Introduction in Section 1.1: 5 One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles 5 and there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modi cation of PLA. B875_Sample.indd 4B875_Sample.indd 49/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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1. How to Write an Introduction 5 SampleLater on, in the Results section, you can even decide to state your own ndings this way. Look at these two sentences which describe results: (a) We found that the pressure increased as the temperature rose , which indicated that temperature played a signi cant role in the process. (b) We found that the pressure increases as the temperature rises , which indicates that temperature plays a signi cant role in the process. Which sentence is ‘stronger’? In (a), using the Past Simple tense means that yo ndings are linked only to your own research, and you do not claim your deductions should be considered as accepted or established facts, or even that another researcher will necessarily get the same results. In (b), using the Present Simple tense means that you believe yo ndings and deductions are strong enough to be considered as facts or truth e Present Simple communicates this reliability and your readers will respond to your work accordingly. ere will be more about this later, in the unit on Results. Past Simple/Present Perfect Another tense pair you need in the Introduction is the Past Simple tense and the Present Perfect tense. You will need both, and you need to know when and why to switch from one to the other. Look at these sentences: (a) Past Simple: I lived in Tokyo fo ve years… but I don’t live there anymore. (b) Present Perfect: I have lived in Tokyo for and I still live there NOW. ve years… (c) Past Simple: I broke my glasses… but it doesn’t matter/ I repaired them. (d) Present Perfect: I have broken my glasses… and so I can’t see properly NOW. B875_Sample.indd 5B875_Sample.indd 59/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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6 SCIENCE RESEARCH WRITING SampleYou probably learned th erence between (a) and (b) years ago: that one of th erences between Past Simple and Present Perfect is the ‘time’ of the verb, i.e. when it happened e erence between (c) and (d) is harder to understand and more important for you as a writer of science research. In (c) and (d), ‘time’, i.e. when the verb happened, isn’t really what separates the two sentences; it’s possible that both (c) and (d) happened last month, this morning, or one nanosecond ago. What is important is that the event in (d) is considered more relevant to the situation now than the event in (c), which is why it is given in the Present Perfect. Why is this idea of relevance useful when you write an Introduction? Look at these sentences from the Introduction in Section 1.1: For example, Penney et al. showed that PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques 6 and more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such composites. 7 However, although th ect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, 8 little* attention has been paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component. * Note : a little means ‘a small amount’, but little means ‘virtually none’. Where does the tense change? Why do you think the writer changes from the Past Simple to the Present Perfect? Could it be because this research article is NOW paying attention to the selection of an appropriate rubber component? Now look at what happens if the writer forgets to change tense and continues in the Past Simple: However, although th ect of the rubber particles on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago, 8 little attention was paid to the selection of an appropriate rubber component. B875_Sample.indd 6B875_Sample.indd 69/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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8 SCIENCE RESEARCH WRITING SampleAnother way is to use a pronoun (it, they ) or pro-form (this method, these systems ) to glue the sentences together: Many researchers have suggested ways of reducing cost without ecting the quality of the image. ese methods rely on data structures built during a preprocessing step. On the basis of these criteria it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer blends using PLA and a hydrocarbon rubber (PI). is combination of two mechanistically distinct polymerisations formed a novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI signi cantly increase exibility. e third way is not to nish the sentence at all, but to join it to the next sentence with a semicolon or a relative clause (a ‘which’ clause). Joining sentences with a semicolon works well when two sentences are very closely related and one of them is quite short: e procedure for testing whether components are operationally safe usually takes many hours ; this means that tests are rarely repeated. It has received much attention over the past few decades due to its biodegradable properties, which er important economic ts. e fourth way is to use a signalling sentence connector to indicate the relationship between one sentence and the next, or one part of a sentence and the next. You know how useful sentence connectors are from your reading; when you see a word like therefore or however, you are able to process the next piece of information in the sentence correctly even if you don’t understand every word is is because the sentence connector signals the function of the information in the sentence e opposite is also true: when the writer does not signal the function of the information with a connector, it is harder for the reader to process the information. Even if the grammar is perfect and every word is correct, the reader still may not be sure what the information is doing (Is it a result of the previous B875_Sample.indd 8B875_Sample.indd 89/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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1. How to Write an Introduction 9 Samplesentence? An example? A cause?), and may interpret it erently from the way the writer intended. You already use words like therefore and however and one aim of this subsection is to make sure that you are using them correctly. Another aim is to expand your vocabulary of signalling words, because you can’t spend the rest of your writing life using only therefore and however ! Here are some examples of signalling language arranged according to their function. It is not a long list because only those which are commonly used in science writing have been included. CAUSE e experiment was unsuccessful ________ the measuring instruments were inaccurate. e experiment was unsuccessful ________ the inaccuracy of the measuring instruments. due to (the fact that)as on account of (the fact that)because in view of (the fact that)since • Be careful when you use since ; it is also en used to mean ‘from that time’, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose a erent connector. • All these connectors can be used at the start of a sentence, even because (Because the measuring instruments were inaccurate, the experiment was unsuccessful). RESULT e measuring instruments were calibrated accurately, ________ the experiment was successful. thereforeas a result (of which) consequentlywhich is why henceso • Don’t start sentences with so to communicate a result; it’s too informal. B875_Sample.indd 9B875_Sample.indd 99/3/2009 2:27:00 PM9/3/2009 2:27:00 PM
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10 SCIENCE RESEARCH WRITING Sample• You can sometimes use then, for example in sentences like ‘If x then y’, but it won’t work in every sentence, which is why it has not been included in this list. CONTRAST/DIFFERENCE British students are all vegetarians, __________ Norwegian students eat meat every day. howeveron the other hand whereaswhile butby contrast • on the contrary and conversely don’ t into this category because they don’t only communicat erence; they communicate the fact that ‘exactly the opposite is true’, so you can’t use them in the sentence above (because vegetarians and meat eaters aren’t opposites, they’re ju erent). However, you could use them in the following sentence: Some experiments used uncalibrated instruments and succeeded; conversely , other experiments used carefully calibrated instruments and failed. • Be careful when you use while ; it is also en used to mean ‘at that/ the same time’, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose a erent connector. UNEXPECTEDNESS (a) _______ it was di cult, a solution was eventually found. (b) _______ the di culty, a solution was eventually found. (c) It was di cult; ________ a solution was eventually found. (a) Although(b) Despite(c) nevertheless (a) Even though(b) In spite of(c) however ough(b) Regardless of(c) yet (b) Notwithstanding(c) nonetheless (c) even so B875_Sample.indd 10B875_Sample.indd 109/3/2009 2:27:01 PM9/3/2009 2:27:01 PM
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1. How to Write an Introduction 11 Sample• ere are other connectors with the same meaning, such as still and anyway, but they are more informal. ADDITION We used a batch processing system because it was more ective; ___________ it was faster. in additionalso moreoversecondly (etc) furthermorein the second place ( etc. )apart from that/whichwhat is more, • besides has more or less the same meaning as the items in the list above, but it’s more powerful and is therefore better used in more persuasive contexts. Now check what you have learned by looking at the way sentences are connected in the Introductions of your target articles. 1.2.3 Passive/Active Students o en ask whether they can use we in their research articles. In the Introduction you usually say what you will be doing or presenting in the research article. You can use we to refer to your research group or team, but do not use it to refer to people or humanity in general. If you are referring to people in general, it’s better to use a construction with It (It is known/ thought that… ) rather than We know/think that… It is also common to use the passive instead of we, especially in the central ‘report’ section ( was measured, was added, etc. ).In a thesis, you are writing as an individual and you don’t have a research group or team. Since you cannot write your thesis using I, you will probably write in the passive. Use words like here and in this study to B875_Sample.indd 11B875_Sample.indd 119/3/2009 2:27:01 PM9/3/2009 2:27:01 PM
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