by MM AYOUB — the martyrs, in Islam this phenomenon remained limited to Shi’i Islam, and even there took a wise, he who dies from a stray arrow or bullet, or from his house collapsing down upon him, is (Beirut: Dar al-11m 61-malayin, 1971), p. 75. 17.
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3 Martyrdom in Christianity and Islam MAHMOTJD M. AYOUB nue of the most important marks of a person’s faith or commitment to V a religious ideology is his readiness to defend that faith with life itself if necessary. Examples of such heroic sacrifice or martyrdom abound in both ancient and contemporary society, In ancient times, the heroic indifference of such men as the Stoic philosopher, Epictetus, to torture and death in the affirmation of a noble ideal earned them the honor of martyrs; their example and ideal of total indifference to passions and worldly life provided a model for early Christian martyrs. In our own time, such men as Che Guaverra and his legendary comrade Tanya have been regarded as martyrs and even saints by some Catholic leftist priests. Martyrdom has been one of the most power-ful instruments in the establishment and propagation of a faith or ideology, and hence of a new social order. In this essay we shall examine the philosophy of martyrdom and the role of martyrs in Christianity and Islam. We shall first consider this phenomenon in each of the two traditions separately, and then briefly discuss similarities and differences of concept and attitude towards the martyr in the two com-munities. Our aim is essentially to appreciate the contribution which this phenomenon has made to the religio-political situation of today’s world. The term martyr as used in the New Testament means “witness.” A martyr is a witness not to an idea but to an event, to the faith in the crucified and risen Christ. Thus the author of 1 John writes, “. .. that which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon and touched with our hands . . . we proclaim also to you. .. .”1 The first Christian martyr, Stephen, is reported to have seen the heavens open and the Son of God seated on the right hand of God.2 Neither in the Old nor the New Testament, however, do we see any significant development of the concept beyond an almost juridical meaning of witness. In biblical and post-biblical Judaism, martyrdom was considered to be an individual work of piety and tesissance to evil. The cases of the woman and her seven sons in IV Maccabees (8;3ff) and the three young men in Daniel (ch. 3) have survived as powerful symbols in the liturgy and hagiography of 67 3 Martyrdom 1fl Christianity and Islam MAHMOUD M. AYOUB One of me most important marks of a person’s faith or commitment to a religious ideology i.s his readiness to defend that faith with life itself if necessary. Examples of such heroic sacrifice or martyrdom abound in born ancient and contemporary society. In ancient times, the heroic indifference of such men as the Stoic philosopher, Epktetus, to torrure and death in the affirmation of a noble ideal earned them the honor of martyrs; their example and ideal of total indifference to passions and worldly life provided a model for early Christian martyrs. In our own time, such men as Che Guaverra and his legendary comrade Tanya have been regarded as martyrs and even saints by some Catholic leftist priests. Martyrdom has been one of the most ful instruments in the establishment and propagation of a faith or ideology, and hence of a new social order. In this essay we shall examine the philosophy of martyrdom and the role of martyrs in Christianity and Islam. We shall first consider this phenomenon in each of the two traditions separately. and then briefly discuss similarities and differences of concept and attitude towards the marcyr in the tWO munities. Our aim is essentially to appreciate the contribution which this phenomenon has made to the religio-political situation of today’s world. The term martyr as used in the New Tesramcm means “witness,” A martyr is a witness not to an idea bur to an event, to the faith in rhe crucified and risen Christ. Thus the author of I John writes, ” that which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon and [Duched wirh our hands. , . we proclaim also to you. , .. “1 The first Christian martyr, Stephen, is reported ro have seen the heavens open and the Son of God se”olted on the right hand of God.2 Neither in the Old nor the New Testament, however, do we see any significant development of the concept beyond an almost juridical meaning of witnen. In biblical and post-biblical Judaism. martyrdom was considered to be an individual work of piety and resistance to evil. The cases of the woman and her seven sons in IV Maccabees (8:3ff) and the three young men in Daniel (ch. 3) have survived as powerful symbols in the Iirurgy and hagiography of 67
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68 MAHMOUD M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 69 the Church. The aim of martyrdom in Judaism was essentially to perfect the victim and edify the people. Since martyrdom, as a religious and moral con-cept, can best develop within an eschatological framework, it is significant that in Judaism this concept appears only in late Biblical and apocryphal writings in an eschatological context. The early Church fell heir to both Jew-ish eschatology and its moral implications. In Acts 22:20, St. Paul acknowledges his role in the martyrdom of early Christians, “when the blood of Thy servant Stephen was shed.”3 The book of Revelation, the apocalypse of the early Church, presents a vivid image of the martyrs: “I saw the woman drunk with the blood . . . of the martyrs.”4 During the apostolic age, the concept of martyrdom took on new meaning as the number of martyrs increased and their memory lived on. Yet the two elements of witnessing to one’s faith and stoic indifference to pain continued to dominate the thinking of the early Church. Thus we read in I Clement 5:4-7 (written about A.D. 96): Peter, who because of unrightenus jealousy suffered not one or two but many trials, and having thus given his testimony went to the glotious place which was his due. Through jealousy and strife Paul showed the way to the prize of endurance; seven times he was in bonds, he was exiled, he was stoned, he was a herald both in the East and in the West, he gained the noble fame of his faith, he taught righteousness to all the world, and when he had reached the limits of the West he gave his testimony before the rulers, and thus passed from the world and was taken up into the Holy PlaceŠthe greatest example of endurance.’ One of the earliest and most eager martyrs of the Church was Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who died in A.D. 108, For Ignatius, the martyr was “he who imitated Christ in His sufferings.”6 He therefore used the term disciple rather than witness. His view was fully theological, and he insisted on bodily suffering as a proof that Christ, the crucified Son of God, was clothed in a real body. Ignatius wished his own body to be crushed between the teeth of wild beasts, to become a perfect loaf for Christ, whose own body is repre-sented in the bread and wine of the EucharistŠregarded by Ignatius as “the medicine of immortality.”7 In the account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, written about A.D. 155, witnessing faith to the humanity and suffering of the Son of God was fully developed as a concept.” In the Leonine letters of about A.D. 170 the term martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of blood for Christ. Here, the example of Stephen, who saw (witnessed) the glori- fied Christ before his death, was used as a proof case. The letters vehemently protest the use of the epithet martyrs for confessors who endured persecution but did not seal their testimony with their blood.9 In The Shepherd of Her-mas, this imitator of Christ through martyrdom earns the martyr’s salvation and a share in the glory of Christ. “Those who suffered for the name of die Son of God are glorious. All their sins have been taken away.”11 The martyrs are also pictured as sitting on thrones with crowns on their heads, with Christ engaged in judging the worlds’ Such glory belongs only to those who have suffered stripes, imprisonment, crucifixion, and wild beasts for Christ’s name, insists the author of The Shepherd A rich and elaborate cultus evolved out of this great regard for martyrdom and the veneration accorded martyrs. We can discuss only the beginnings of this cultus, and some of its salient features. Apparently, the authorities respon-sible for the execution by burning of Polycarp sought to prevent the Chris-tians from gathering his remains which, they feared, would be venerated more than Christ. The faithful protested this accusation vehemently, arguing that the veneration accorded to martyrs for their sacrifice is not the same as wor-ship which belongs to God alone. The classic difference here stated and greatly elaborated in the Eastern Church is between honor or veneration and wor-ship. The parishioners of the bishop did gather the bones of the saint for burial, considering them “to be more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold. . . [They] laid them in a suitable place. There the Lord will permit us [they said] . . . to gather together in joy and gladness and to celebrate the day of his martyrdom as a birthday, in memory of those ath-letes who have gone before. . . .”12 The “birthday of the martyr” as an annual memorial was a Christian adaptation of pagan custom that played a crucial role in the growth of the cult of martyrs.* Others among the early Church fathers advocated great veneration for mar-tyrs whom they considered to be the treasures of the Church. Martyrdom was considered to be a second baptism, the baptism of blood, granting the mar-tyr immediate remission of sin and entry into Paradise. Martyrs who were im-prisoned awaiting death, their families, and even the towns in which they resided were held in high honor. Those who remained steadfast through im-prisonment and torture (although escaping death) gained positions among the elite of society. This honor gave them the privilege of episcopal office.14 From an early period, martyrs who were imprisoned were asked to pray for the health, well-being, and salvation of the pious. It was a natural develop-ment that such requests for prayers came to be renewed after the martyr’s death. This controversial point no doubt led to an even greater tension be-tween worship of the deadŠa common practice in pre-Christian pagan society Šand the veneration of martyrs. The cult of martyrs with its relics and shrines 68 MAHMOUD M. AYOUB the Church. The aim of martyrdom in Judaism wa.1 essentially to perfect the victim and edify the people. Since martyrdom, as a reEgious and moral cept, call best develop widlin an eschatological framework, it is significant that in Judaism this concept appears only in late Biblical and apocryphal writings in an eschatological context. The early Church fell heir to both ish escharology and irs moral implications. In Acts 22:20, St. Paul acknowledges his role in the manyrdom of early Christians, “when the blood of Thy servant Stephen was shed.”3 The book of Revelation, the apocalypse of the early Church, presents a vivid image of the martyrs: “I saw the woman drunk with (he blood of the martyrs.”4 During the apostolic age. the concept of martyrdom took on new meaning as the number of martyrs increased and their memory lived on. Yet the two elements of witnessing to one’s faith and stoic indifference to pain continued to dominate the thinking of the early Church. Thus we read in I Clement 5:4-7 (written about A.D. 96): Peter, who because of unrighte.ous jealowy suff.m:d not one or but many trials, and having thus given his testimony went to the glotious place which was hi5 due. Through jealousy and suife Paul showed the way co the prize of endurance; 5cven times he was in bonds, he was exiled, he was stoned, he was a herald Doth in rhe East and in the West, he gained the noble: fame of his f.irh, he taught righteousness to all the world, and when he had teached the limits of the West he gave his testimony before the rulers, and rhus passed from the world and wa> up into the Holy greatest example of endurance.’ . One of the earliest and most eager martyrs of the Church was Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who died in A.D. 108. Foc Ignatius, the manyr was “he who imirated Christ in His sufferings.”6 He therefore used the term disciple rather than wit71eH. His view was fully theological, and he insisted on bodily suffering as a proof that Christ, the crucified Son of God. was clothed in a real body. Ignatius wished his own body to be crushed berweell the teeth of wild beasts, to become a perfect loaf for Christ, whose own body is repre· sented in the bread and wine of the Eucharist-regarded by Ignatius as “the medicine of immortality.”7 III the account of the martyrdom ofPolycarp. bishop of Smyrna, written about A.b. 155, wimessing faith to the humanity and sufferillg of the Son of God was fully developed as a concept.” In the leonine letters of abour A.o. 170 the tcrm martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of blood for Christ. Here, the example of Stephen, who saw (wimcssed) the glori· ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANG!! 69 fied Christ before his death, was used as a proof case. The lelters vehemently protest the use of the epithet martYrI for confessors who endured persecution but did not seal their testimony with their blood.” In The Shepherd of Her· mas. this imitator of Christ through manyrdom carns the martyr’s salvation and a share in the glory of Christ. “Those who suffered for the name of dIe Son of God are glorious. All their sins have been taken away.”” The mar.tyrs are also pictured as sitting Oil thrones with CroWIIS on thdr with Christ engaged in judging the world.” Such glory belongs only to those who have suffered stripes, imprisonment. crucifixion, and wild beasts for Chrisr’s name, insists the author of The Shepherd. A rich and elaborate cultus evolved out of this great regard for martyrdom alld the veneration accorded martyrs. We can discuss only rhe beginnings of this cultus, and some of its salient reatutes. Apparently, tlle authorities sible for the execution by burning of Polycarp sought to prevent the tians from gathering his remains which, they feared, would be venerated more than Christ. The faithful protested this accusation vehemently, arguing thar the veneration accorded to matlyrs fur their sacrifice is not the same as ship which belongs to God alone. The classic difference here stared and greatly elaborated in the Eastern Church is between honor or veneration and wor· ship. The parishioners of the bishop did gather the bones of the saint for burial. considering them “to be more valuable than precious stones and finer than relined gold . [They] laid them in a suitable place. There the lord will permit us [they said] to gather together in joy and gladness and to celebrate rhe day of his martyrdom as a birthday, in memory of those letes who have gone before . “12 The “birrhday of the martyr” as nn :l[JIlUal memorial W3S a Christian adaptation of pagan custOm that played a crucial role in the growth of the cult of martyrs.13 Others among the early Church fathers advocated great veneration for ryrs whom they considercd to be the treasures of rhe Church. Martyrdom was considered to bc a second baptism, the baptism of blood, granting the mar· tvr immediate remission of sin and entry inro Paradise. Martyrs who were im· prisoned awaiting death, their families, and the towns in which resided wete held in high honor. Those who remamcd steadfast through prisonment and torture (although e5caping death) gained positions among the elite of society. This honor gave them the privilege of episcopal ofncc.14 From an early period, martyrs who were imprisoned were asked pray for the health, well· being, and salvation of the pious. It was a natural develop· ment thar such requests for prayers came to be renewed after the martyr’s death. This controversial point no dou bt led to all even greater tensioll tween worship of the dead -a common pracrice in pre-Christian pagan SOCIety -and the veneration of martyrs. The cuI t of martyrs with its relies and shrines
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70 MAHMOUD M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 71 became the object of scorn to the Protestant Reformation; as a result the Catho-lic Church was forced to define its theology of martyrdom again and again. In the words of the Council of Trent, which met in part to answer the criti-cisms of the Reformation: “The holy bodies of holy martyrs, and of others now living with ChristŠwhich bodies were the living members of Christ and the temple of the Holy Ghost (I Corinthians 3:16), and which are by Him to be raised unto eternal life, and to be glorifiedŠare to be venerated by the faithful through which bodies many benefits are bestowed by God on men.,3 While in Christianity a rich cultus arose around the shrines and relics of the martyrs, in Islam this phenomenon remained limited to Shi’i Islam, and even there took a different form and meaning, The “friend of God” or saint in Islam, whose shrine became a place of pilgrimage for the pious, was not required to be a martyr. In fact, the Prophet recommended that, whenever possible, martyrs should be buried at the spot where they fell in battle.” To my knowledge, there are no shrines in the Muslim world except those of the Shiah imams in Iraq and Iran; specifically erected as memorials for martyrs. Yet even here the imam’s role is far greater than simply that of martyr. The word shahid (“witness”), with its derivatives, occurs over fifty times in the Quran. In most of these references, the emphasis is on its linguistic meaning and usage as witness here on earth to the oneness of God, the apos-tleship of Muhammad, and the truth of the faith. Witnesses are not in a category by themselves but are classed with the prophets, the righteous, and the truthfulŠ that is, with those who have found favor with God. 17 The first question of concern to us is: Who is a martyr? The answer, as we shall see, is in the end legally determined. A man, we are told, said to the Prophet: “A man may fight in quest of booty. Another may fight for fame and still another for a show of status. Who among these would be fighting in the way of God?” The Prophet answered, “Whoever fights in order that the word of God be uppermost, would be fighting in the way of God.”” The famous traditionist, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, comments on this hadith (“Tradition of the Prophet”): “One may fight for one of five reasons: booty; a show of bravery; or a show before others; in defense of wealth, family, or land; and out of anger. Any one of these could in itself be praiseworthy or the opposite. So long as the main purpose remains that the ‘word of God be uppermost’ (which is here defined as defending the cause of Islam), it mat-ters not what other reasons may exist as secondary causes.”t9 In yet another tradition, the Prophet was asked whether a man fighting for material rewards would also have a reward with God on the day of resur-rection. The Prophet answered, “Nothing.” He continued, “God would not accept a deed unless it is done sincerely for Him and that the doer seek by this only His (God’s) face.”20 At least in early Islam, the application of the term martyr was not limited to the person who is killed in the way of God on the battlefield. Martyrdom is an act of jihad (striving) in the way of God. Jihad, however, contrary to the common view held in the West, is not simply militance: more basic is thefihadagainst the evil in one’s own soul and in society. It is this inner pu-rity resulting from the jihad of the soul that creates the right intention of serving the cause of truth in whatever way possible. In addition to dying in defense of one’s faith, property, or life, therefore, the act of falling off one’s mount, dying of snakebite, or drowning is also regarded as martyrdom. Like-wise, he who dies from a stray arrow or bullet, or from his house collapsing down upon him, is considered a martyr. Even those who die of the plague or a stomach ailment, or a woman who dies in childbirth, arc considered mar-tyrs. The famous traditionist, Ibn Abbas, is said to have declared: “A man dies in his bed in the way of God, yet he is a martyr?”11 Nevertheless, in spite of all this, the true martyr is he who is slain in the way of God. Early traditionists may have used the term martyr very broadly and with caution because they feared the rise of a special cult of martyrs. Thus, in rela-tionship to the authority of Abu Hurayrah, the Prophet is said to have de-clared: “Whoever has faith in God and in His apostle, observes regular prayers and fasts the month of Ramadan, it shall be incumbent upon God to make him enter Paradise, whether he fights in the way of God or remains in the land of his birth.” Yet when the people asked if they should convey this glad tiding to others, the Prophet did not answer directly. Instead, he described the high station of the martyrs in Paradise.s! Perhaps for this reason it was the jurist rather than the orator or theologian who determined the principle according to which a man or woman may be considered to be a martyr. We cannot enter in detail into this technical topic of the qualifications of a martyr; a few general remarks must suffice. Three categories of martyrs may be distinguished: martyr of this world, martyr of this and the world to come, and martyr of the world to come only. The first is he who dies for a worldly cause other than that of faith. The second is he who is slain for no other reason but that “the word of God be uppermost.” Such a martyr is to be buried in his clothes, without washing or shroudingŠordinarily, necessary rites for the dead. The martyr of this world is likewise buried in his clothes, since in the end his motives are known only to God, who will reward each person according to his acts and intentions. Umar Ibn al-Khattab and All 1bn Abi Talib, the second and fourth of the four tightly guided caliphs who were stabbed and died later of their wounds, were given regular burial. While 70 MAHMOIJD M. AYOUB became the objca of scorn to the Protestant Reformation; as a result the Camo. lie Church was forced to define its theology of marryrdom again and again. III me words of rhe Council of ‘frent, which met in pan (0 answer the cisms of the Reformation: “The holy bodies of holy manyrs, and of omers now living with Christ-which bodies were the living members of Christ the temple of the Holy Ghost (I Corinthians 3:16), and which are by HIm to be raiscd unto eternaIlifC, and to glorified-arc w be venerated by the faithful through which bodies mwy benefits are bestowed by God on menI’ While in Christiaoicy a rich cultus arose around the shrines and relics of the martyrs, in Islam this phenomenon remained limited to Shi’j Islam, and even there took a different form and meaning, The “friend of God” or sainr in Islam, whose shrine became a place of pilgrimage fur the pious. was not required to be a martyr. In fact, the Prophet recommended that, whenever possible, manyrs should be buried at the spot where they fell in batcle.’6 To there arc no shrines in the Muslim world except those of the Shlah Imams 10 Iraq and Iran; specificaUy erected as memorials for martyrs. Yet even here the imam’s role is far greater thm simply that of martyr. The word shahid (“witness”), with irs deIivatives, OCcurs over fifty times in the Quean. In most of these references, the emphasis is on its linguistic and usage as witness here on earth to the oneness of God, the tleshIp of Muhammad, and the truth of the faith. Witnesses are not in a category by themselves but are classed with dIe prophets, the righteous, and rhe: truthful-mat is, with those who have found favor with God.IT The first question of concern to us is; Who is a martyr? The answer, as we shall see, is in the end legally determined. A man, we ate told, said to rhe Prophet: ”’A man may fight in quest ofboory.Anomer may fight for fame and still another fur a show of status. Who among these would be fighting in the way of God?” The Prophet answered, “Whoever fights in order that the word of God be uppermost, would be lighting in the way of God.”18 The famous traditionist, Ibn Rajar al-Asqalani, comments on this hat/jth (“‘Ihdition of the Prophet”): “One may fight fur one of five booty; a show of braveI)’; or a show before others; in defense of wealth, family, or land; and Out of anger. Anyone of rhese could in itself be praiseworthy or the opposite. So long as the main purpose remains that the ‘word of God be uppermost’ (which is here defined as defending the cause of Islam), ir ters not what other reasons may exist as secondal)’ causes.”” In yet another tradition, the Prophet was asked whether a man fighting fur mllterial rewards would also have a reward with God on the day of rection. The Prophet answered. “Nothing.” He continued, “God would not ENABLlNG fACTORS FOR CHANGE 71 accept a deed unless it is done sincerely for Him and that the doer seell: by mis only His (God’s) face.”” At least in early Islam, the application of the term martyr was not limited to the person who is killed in the way of God on the battldidd. Martyrdom is an act of jihad (striving) in the way of God. Jihad. however, contraty to the common view held in the West, is not simply militance: more basic is theji»adagainsc the evil in own soul and in society. It is this inner rity resulting from the Jihad of the soul that creates the right intemion of serving the cause of [ruth in whatever way possible. In addition to dying in deferue of one’s faith, property, or life, cllerefore, the act of falling off one’s mount, dying of snakebite, or drowning is also regarded as martyrdom. wise, he who dies from a stray arrow or bullet, or from his house collapsing down upon him, is considered a martyr. Even those who die of the plague or a stomach ailment, or a woman who dies in childbirth, are considered tyrs. The famous tradiciomst, Ibn Abbas, is said to have declared: man dies in bis bed in the way of God, yet he is a martyr.”” Nevertheless, in spite.: of all this, the true martyr is he who is slain in the way of God. Early traditionisrs may have used the term martyr very broadly and with caution because they feared the rise of a special cult of martyrs. ‘Dms, in tionship to the authoricy of Abu Hurayrah, the Prophet is said to have de· clared: “Whoever has faith in God and in His apostle, observes regular prayers and fasts the month of Ramadan. it shall be incumbem upon God to make him enter Paradise, whether he fights in the way of God or remains in the land of his birth:’ Yet when the people asked if Lhey should convey this glad tiding to others, the Prophet did not answer directly. Instead, he described the high station of the martyrs in Paradise.12 Perhaps for tills reason it was the jurist rather than the orator or theologian who derermined the principle according to which a man or woman may be considered to be a martyr. We cannot enter in detail into tethnical topic of the qualifications of a martyr; a few general remarks must suffice. Three categories of martyrs may be distinguished: martyr of this world, martyr of this and the world to come, and martyr of the world to come only. The first is he who dies for a worldly cause other than that of faith. The secood is he who is slain for no other reason but that “the word of God be uppermost.” Such a martyt is to be buried in his clothes, without washing or shrouding-ordinarily, necessary rites for the dead. The martyr of this world is likewise buried in his clothes. since in the end his motives are known only to God, who will reward ea(h person according-to his acts and intentions. Umar Ibn a1-Khattab and Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the second md fourth of the four rightly guided caliphs who were stabbed and died later of their wounds, were given regular burial. While
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72 man:stoma M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 73 both were considered martyrs in the way of God, such burial indicates that they were not, technically speaking, martyrs. The third caliph, Uthman, who was slain in his house, was also not washed or shrouded.” Finally, the Quran counsels Muslims to make peace among themselves. Yet if one group transgresses against another, that group must be fought un-til it returns to the right path.24 Thus, we are told, after the battle of Nahra-wan against the Kharijites (Aro. 659), All had the dead on his side buried as martyrs. This principle has continued to be observed (and often abused) to the present day. As in Christianity, the blood of the martyr in Islam washes away his or her sins. It is important to observe that even though women are exempted from actual fighting for religious and juristic reasons, the first martyr in Islam was a womanŠ Sumayya, the mother of Ammar Ibn Yasir, who was tortured to death with her husband and son by the Mcccan Arabs before the conquest of the city. The injunction to let the blood of the martyrs be their purification is said to have been given by the Prophet regarding those slain in the battle of ‘Mud.” Ile said: “Shroud them in their blood and do not wash them. For no man who is injured in the way of God but that he shall come on the day of resurrection with his blood gushing out of his veins. The color shall be that of blood and the odor that of musk.”26 The martyrs Š”those who ate slain in the way of God”Š the Quran tells us “are not to be reckoned as dead; rather, they are alive with their Lord sus-mince” Islamic eschatology has always been expressed in the language and the social framework of this life. Hence, tradition very early displayed great imagination in depicting the great pleasures of the martyrs in Paradise.” Yet the true martyr for God retains his desire for martyrdom even in Paradise. Malik Ibn Anas related that the Prophet said: “No one who enters Paradise would wish to return to this world, even if he were to possess all that is in it, except the martyr. He would desire to return to the world to be killed ten times because of the great honor [with God] which he sees in this act.”29 “The door of Paradise,” we are told in another tradition, “is under the glittering swools.’30 Tradition records numerous examples of martyrs who sensed the odor of Paradise on the battlefield and thus gladly met their death. One such exam-ple is that of a man called Abdallah Ibrt _latish who prayed on the morning of the battle of Uhud, saying: “0 God, let me today meet a strong and brave knight who will kill me and cut off my nose and two ears. Thus when I shall meet you tomorrow, you will say, ‘My servant, for what were your nose and ears cut off?’ I will then answer, ‘It was in You [for your sake], my Lord, and in your apostle.'”” Shiah Muslims have made the ethos of martyrdom and suffering a basic principle of their faith and piety. Every year during the first ten days of Mu-harram (the first month of the Muslim calendar), they relive the experience of Husayn Ibn Ali, the third imam, who through his death at Karbala pro-vided for all Muslims the supreme example of self-sacrifice in the way of God. In the tragedy of Karbala in A.D. 680, the ideal of martyrdom took on new theological and pietistic significance. Thus Husayn, “the Prince of Martyrs” and “Master of the Youths of the People of Paradise,” was said to have been destined for this sacrifice from the beginning of creation, History was read backward from him to Adam, and beyond and forward to the end of the world. Before him, history was a long prelude to the drama of suffering and death of which he, his friends, and immediate relatives were the central characters, After him, history is a period of intense hope in the anticipation of the return of the Mandi (his ninth descendant and twelfth imam of the Shish commu-nity) to avenge the death of Husayn and vindicate the faithful for their actual and vicarious sharing in the sufferings of the holy family of the Prophet Mu-hammad. Yet Husayn himself was said to have been told by the Prophet in a dream that “he has an exalted station with God which he cannot attain except through mattyrdom.”” The death of Husayn, moreover, became for Shiah Muslims a source of redemption and healing. According to a well-known tradition, just before his death the Prophet said: “I am leaving with you [the Muslim community] the two weights onto which if you hold fast, you shall never go astray: the Book of God and my family, the people of my household. They shall never be separated until they come to me at the spring.”” This paradisiacal spring shall be given to the Prophet on the day of judgment to quench the thirst of the pious “on the day of the great thirst.”” Both the Quran and the family of Muhammad will judge and intercede before God and his Prophet for those of the Muslims who honored the two weights Of neglected and mistreated them. Husayn will also stand before God on the day of resurrection as a head-less body to contend with his murderers and intercede for his followers.” For Shiah piety it is Patmah, the daughter of Muhammad and mother of Husayn, who has in this world embodied the suffering of her descendants and who continues to shed tears of anguish even in Paradise.” This ethos of suffering stands in sharp contrast to the quick and spectacu-lar success of the early generations of Muslims. Yet it is itself the product of that military and economic success, coming as it does out of the conviction that political justice must, in the end, reflect divine justice. God Himself, in Shah theology, is bound only by His own justice. Hence, Shiites repeat daily in their worship the prayer. “0 God, we desire of You an honorable state in which You honor Islam and its people, and humiliate hypocrisy and its people. [We pray] that in it you render us among those who call [others] lIIIU1MOUD M. AYOUB hmh wen: considered martyrs in the way of God, 5uch burial indicates that they were nor, technically speaking, martyrs. The third caliph, Uthman, who was slain in his house, was also not washed or shrouded.Z) Finally, the Quran counsels Muslims to make peace among themselves. Yct if one group transgresses against another, that group must be fought un: til it rerurns to the right path.” Thus, we are told, after the battle of wan against the Kharijites (A.D. 659), Ali had the dead on his side buned as martyrs. This principle has continued to be observed (and often abused) to the present day. As in Chri5tianity. the blood of the martyr in Islam washes away his or her sins. It is important to ob5erve that even though women arc exempted from actual fighting for religious and juristic reasons, the first martyr in Islam was a woman-Sumayya. the mother of Ammar Ibn Yasir, who was tortured to death with hcr husband and son by the Mcccan Arabs hefure the conquest of the city. The injunction to let the blood of the martyrs be their purification is said to have been given by the Propher regarding those slain in the battle of Uhud.1′ He said: “Shroud them in their blood and do not wash them. Por no man who is injured in the way of God but that he shall come on the day of resurrection with his blood gushing OUt of his veins. The color shall be that of blood and the odor that of musk.”:!6 The martyrs-“those who are slain in the way of God”-the Quran tells us “are not to be reckoned as dead; ratner, they are alive with their Lord rained.”z1 Islamic e5clutology has always been expressed in the language and the social framework of this life. Hence, tradition very eady displayed great imagination in depicring the great pleasures of the martyrs in Paradise.’· Yer rhe tlUe martyr fur God retains his desire for martyrdom even in Paradise. Malik Ibn Anas related that tbe Prophet said: “No one who enters Paradise would wish to rerum [Q this world, even if he were to possess all that is in ie, excepr the manyr. He would desire ro return to the world to be killed ten rimes because of the great honor (with God) which he sees in this act,”29 “The door of Paradise,” we are told in another tradition, “is under the glittering swords:’]· Tradition records numerous examples of marryrs who sensed the odor of Paradisc on the battlefield and thus gladly met their death. One such ple is that of a man called Abdallah IbnJahsh who prayed on the morning of the battle ofUhud. saying: “0 God. let me [Oday meet a srrong and brave knight who will kill me and cur off my nose and two ears. Thus when I shall meet you tomorrow, you will say. ‘My servant, fur what. were your nose and cars cut off?’ I will then answer. ·It was in You [for your sake], my Lord. and in your apostle Ł31 Shiall Muslims have made the ethos of martyrdom and suffering a basic ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE principle of their faith and piety. Every year during the lim ten days of harram (the first month of the Muslim calendar). they relive the experience of Husayn Ibn Ali, the third imam. who through his death at Karbala pro· vided for all Muslims the supreme example of self-sacrifice in the way of God. In the tragedy of Karbala in A.D. 680, the ideal of martyrdom took on new theological and pietisric significance, Thus Husayn, “the Prince of Martyrs” and “Master of the Youths of the People of Paradise.” was said to have heen destined for this sacrifice from the beginning of creation. History was read backward from him to Adam. and beyond and furward to the end of the world. DefOre him, history was a long prelude to the drama of suffering and death of which he. his friends. and immediate relatives were the cemral characters. Mter him. history is a period of intense hope in the anticipation of the return of the Mahdi (his ninth descendant and twelfth imam of the Shiah nity) to avenge the death ofHusayn and vindicate the fairhful for rhelf actual and vicarious sharing in the sufferings of rheholy family of the Prophet hammad. Yet Husayn himself was said ro have: been rold by the Prophet a dream that “he has an exalred station with God which he cannot attain except through mattyrdom.”31 The death of Husayn, moreover. became for Shiah Muslims a source of redemption and healing. According to a well-known just his death the Prophet said: “I am leaving with you (the Mushm commUulty) the two weights onto which if you hold fast, you shall never go astray: the Book of God and my family, the people of my household. They shall never be separated until they come to me at the spring.”‘3 This paradisiacal spring shall be given to the Prophet on the day of judgment to quench the thirst .of the piau:; “on the day of the great thirst:’34 Both the Quran and the famdy of Muhammad will judge and intercede before God and his Prophet for those of the Muslims who honored the two weights or neglected and mistreared them. Husayo will also stand before God on the day of rcsurrection as a less body to motend with his murderers and intercede ti)r his followers.” For Shiah piety it is Fatmah. the daughter of Muhammad and mother ofHusayn, who has in this world embodied the suffering of her descendants and who continues to shed rears of anguish even in Paradise.l6 This ethos of suffering stands in sharp contrast to the quick and spectacu· lar success of the early generarions of Muslims. Yet it is itself the of that military and cconomic success, coming as of the that political justice must, in the end. reflect dIVIne JustIce. Himself. in Shiah theology, is bound only by His own justic.e, Hencc, Shiites repeat daily in their worship the prayer: “0 God. we deSlfe you an 5tate in which You honor Islam and irs people, and humlhate hypoCflsy and its people. [We pray) that in ir you render us among those who call lothers)
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