by L BURKE · Cited by 1612 — Both the individual threat indicators and the overarch- ing index of human pressure serve as a basic guide to pre- sent and future coral reef conditions across
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CONTRIBUTING INSTITUTIONSThe Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean project was developed and implemented by the World Resources Institute (WRI) in collaboration with many partner organizations. Research Institutions and Universities Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP) Centre For Marine Sciences, the University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica (CMS-UWI) Florida International University (FIU) Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute (GCFI) National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research (NCORE) University of Miami (UM) University of South Florida (USF) University of the West Indies (UWI) Nongovernmental Organizations Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) Corporación para el desarrollo sostenible del Archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (CORALINA) Environmental Defense Fondation pour la Protection de la Biodiversité Marine (FoProBiM) Island Resources Foundation (IRF) The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) Reef Check World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Government Agencies and International Organizations Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) United Nations Environment Programme – Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP) United Nations Environment Programme – World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) World Bank / GEF Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) Project The World Fish Center Financial Support The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation The Henry Foundation Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) United Nations Foundation (UNF) U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) PHOTO: WOLCOTT HENRY ©REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN The Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean project was implemented by WRI in collaboration with many partner organizations ( see inside front cover ). The project is a component of the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) and was implemented in close collaboration with the Caribbean Environment Programme. This report is a summary of a two- year effort. In addition to the report, all maps, model results, technical notes, and GIS data are available from the Reefs at Risk web site, reefsatrisk.wri.org.WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTEThe World Resources Institute (WRI) is an environmental policy research institute that strives to create practical ways to prot ect theEarth and improve people™s lives. Our mission is to move human society to live in ways that protect the Earth™s environment for cur- rent and future generations. In all of its policy research and work with partners, WRI tries to build bridges between ideas and action, meshing the insights of scientific research, economic and institutional analyses, and practical experience with the need for op en andparticipatory decision-making. INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF ACTION NETWORK (ICRAN) ICRAN is a global partnership implementing a set of interlinked and complementary activities to enable the proliferation of goo dpractices for coral reef management and conservation, which also undertakes the implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative™s (ICRI) Framework for Action . The activities of ICRAN fall into three components, namely, management action, coral reef monitoring and assessment, and communication. In addition, the UNEP-Regional Seas Programmes, such as the Caribbean Environment Programme, play a leading role in practical action to protect and manage targeted coral reef ecosystems in a networ k ofsites worldwide, and help to alleviate poverty in communities whose livelihoods depend on coral reefs. This work is combined wi thassessment and information components, such as the activities of WRI and other partners, to raise awareness, promote good pract ices,and enhance effective management of people™s actions and their impacts upon coral reefs. THE CARIBBEAN ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMEEstablished by the nations and territories of the Wider Caribbean Region in 1981, the Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) promotes cooperation for the protection of the marine and coastal environment. The CEP is an integral part of the Regional Seas Programme of the UNEP, and is administered by its Regional Coordinating Unit (CAR/RCU) in Kingston, Jamaica. The legal frame- work for the CEP, adopted in 1983, is provided by the Cartagena Convention. This Convention, the only region-wide environmental treaty for the Wider Caribbean, is a framework agreement setting out the political and legal foundations for environmental acti onsfor the conservation and sustainable use of the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and adjacent areas. These actions are direct ed by a series of operational protocols, addressing oil spills, protected areas and wildlife (SPAW Protocol), and land-based activities and sources of marine pollution (LBS Protocol). The activities of the UNEP-CAR/RCU assist nations of the Wider Caribbean to under- take sustainable development and environmentally sound practices. The CEP assists in the co-ordination of international initiat ives in the region, such as the ICRI and the ICRAN and has established co-operation with global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and Ramsar.
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Hyacinth Billings Publications Director Cover Photo French Anglefish by Wolcott Henry ©Inside Front Cover Photo Staghorn Coral by Toni Parras ReportSeries Design Lomangino Studio Inc. Layout of Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean Maggie Powell No photograph in this report may be used in another work without written permission from the photographer. Each World Resources Institute report represents a timely, scholarly treatment of a subject of public concern. WRI takes responsibility for choosing the study topics and guaranteeing its authors and researchers freedom of inquiry. It also solicits and responds to the guidance of advisory panels and expert reviewers. Unless otherwise stated, however, all the interpretation and findings set forth in WRIpublications are those of the authors. Copyright © 2004 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. ISBN 1-56973-567-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2004113031 Printed in the United States of America on chlorine-free paper with recycled content of 50%, 30% of which is post-consumer.
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FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Purpose and Goal of Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Methods and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Key Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17About the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19CHAPTER 2. PROJECT APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Threat Analysis Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Limitations of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23CHAPTER 3. THREATS TO REEFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Coastal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Sedimentation and Pollution from Inland Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27Marine-Based Sources of Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Overfishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36Integrating Threats: The Reefs at Risk Threat Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40CHAPTER 4. STATUS OF CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41Bahamian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42Greater Antilles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43Eastern Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45Southern Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46Southwestern Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Western Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50Bermuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51CHAPTER 5. ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF CORAL REEF DEGRADATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Purpose and Methods for Valuing Coral Reef Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53Tourism and Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54Shoreline Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56Other Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58Areas for Future Research and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN 3Contents
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APPENDIX A. PHYSICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS FOR THE CARIBBEAN REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 APPENDIX B. DATA SOURCES USED IN THE REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN THREAT ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 APPENDIX C. INFORMATION ACTIVITIES IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72ACRONYMS AND GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75BOXESBox 1.Caribbean Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Box 2.Jamaica™s Reefs: Back from the Brink? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32Box 3.Marine Protected Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47MAPSMap 1.The Caribbean Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Map 2.Reefs Threatened by Coastal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Map 3.Agricultural Lands by Slope Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27Map 4.Reefs Threatened by Sedimentation and Pollution from Inland Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Map 5.Reefs Threatened by Marine-Based Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30Map 6.Reefs Threatened by Overfishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Map 7.Coral Bleaching Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35Map 8.Coral Disease Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37Map 9.Integrated Threat – The Reefs at Risk Threat Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38Map 10.Caribbean Sub-Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41FIGURESFigure 1.Number of Reported Bleaching Observations by Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Figure 2.Reefs at Risk by Category of Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40Figure 3.Sub-Regions by Reefs at Risk Threat Index and Reef Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42TABLES Table 1.Reefs at Risk Analysis Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Table 2.Reefs Threatened by Human Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39Table 3.Estimated Economic Value of Fisheries Production in the Caribbean: Healthy Reefs versus Reefs Degraded by 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Table 4.Estimated Economic Value of Coral Reef-Related Tourism in the Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Table 5.Range of Estimated Economic Values of Shoreline Protection Services Provided by Healthy Coral Reefs in the Caribbean in 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 Table 6.Summary of Estimated Values of Selected Goods and Services Derived from Coral Reefs in the Caribbean (2000) and Estimated Potential Losses Due to Coral Reef Degradation (by 2015 and 2050) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN
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6REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN PrefaceSince the age of seven, when my father threw me overboard, I have been observing coral reefs through a dive mask. I have marveled at the beauty, biological diversity, and productivity of coral reefs and have seen how important they are to the local people who depend on them for food, income, recreation, and spiritual enrichment. I have also seen how human activity has undermined the health and vitality of reefs. The coral reefs I observed in the 1940s are totally differ- ent today. Sadly, none has changed for the better. When I think of coral reef ecology, the concepts of con-nection and interdependence come to mind. Corals have their symbiotic algal partners, while ficleaner fishfl have their clients. Landscape management relates directly to sediment and nutrient delivery and to reef health, while energy use and carbon dioxide emissions link to global warming and coral bleaching. The historical over-har- vesting of large animals has impaired reef vitality. Public awareness is essential for sustainable reef management. These are just some of the examples that underscore the vital connections in time and space that affect coral reefs. The tragic decline in reef health is due to human insult, and their restoration likewise depends on human action. I am pleased to see that Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean addresses these connections and calls attention to the importance of people in the equation of reef health and restoration. The involvement of multiple partner organizations ensures that this report reflects the many facets of reef assessment and management, and will be widely used. Predictably, I totally concur with the need for greater public awareness. It is my view that without public support, rational and sustainable management will not occur. I am often told that our television shows were instrumental in inspiring many of our present ocean experts to pur- sue a career in ocean sciences. Of course, awareness is not action. Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean clearly outlines the criticalsteps required for building capacity and improving management. The focus on socioeconomic issues is crucial to ensuring that future generations will continue to benefit from coral reefs. Ultimately, our challenge is not to manage reefs: it is to manage ourselves. I applaud the World Resources Institute for its admirable work to protect coral reefs, a priceless natural treasure. JEAN-MICHEL COUSTEAU |Ocean Futures Society PHOTO: WOLCOTT HENRY ©
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REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN 7The Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean project would not have been possible without the encouragement and financial sup- port provided by the United Nations Foundation, the U.S. Agency for International Development, the United Nations Environment Programme – Caribbean Environment Programme, the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, the Henry Foundation, the World Bank / GEF Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System Project, the National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research, the Nature Conservancy, Environmental Defense, and the World Fish Center. The Reefs at Risk project is part of the International Coral Reef Action Network, a collaboration developed to reverse the decline of the world™s coral reefs. (See inside back cover.) The World Resources Institute gratefully acknowledges the many partners and colleagues who contributed to this project. ( See inside front cover for full institutional names. )We thank Philip Kramer (TNC) and Robert Ginsburg (AGRRA) for the provision of AGRRA data and guidance with the threat analysis; Mark Spalding (University of Cambridge) for sharing his knowledge of Caribbean coral reefs; Hillary Nobles (IRF) for compiling information on coral reef condition; Serge Andréfouët (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement) and Christine Kranenburg (USF) for coral reef maps; Jennifer Gebelein (FIU), Steve Rohmann and Aurelie Shapiro (NOAA) for land cover classifications; Ed Green, Corinna Ravilious, Emily Corcoran, Michelle Taylor, and Ed McManus (UNEP-WCMC) for providing maps of coral reefs and marine protected areas; Al Strong, William Skirving, Scott Baron and Andrew Barton (NOAA) for information on warming seas; Melanie McField (WWF) for reviewing the watershed model; Johnathan Kool (NCORE), Steven Menard, and Janet Nackoney (WRI) for support on GIS; John McManus, Cara Dickman, and NCORE staff, Marilyn Brandt, Wade Cooper, and Aletta Yniguez for organizing the project workshop; Ian Gillett (Belize Coastal Zone Management Institute), Julie Robinson (NASA), and Kathleen Sullivan Seeley (UM) for satellite images and coral reef maps; Bruce Potter (IRF) for sharing information throughout the Caribbean community; Rich Iovanna (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) for assisting with valida- tion of the threat model; Mahfuz Ahmed and Chiew Kieok Chong (World Fish), Suzanne Garrett (UM), Bob Leeworthy (NOAA), Suzie Greenhalgh and Siet Meijer (WRI), and Herman Cesar (Cesar Environmental Economics Consulting) for data, ideas, guidance, and review of the economic valuation; Dulce Linton and George Warner (UWI) for coral data and expert review; Clive Wilkinson (GCRMN) for providing links to the network; Uwe Deichmann (World Bank) for plume module imple- mentation; Gregor Hodgson and Craig Shuman (Reef Check) for their data; Alessandra Vanzella-Khouri, Luc St- Pierre, Malden Miller, Nelson Andrade (UNEP-CEP), and Kristian Teleki and Alison Glass (ICRAN) for their guid- ance and support; and Barbara Best, Laura Cornwell (USAID), and Angel Braestrup (Munson Foundation) for their steadfast encouragement.In addition to many of those already mentioned, the following people provided valuable input through participa- tion in the Reefs at Risk threat analysis workshop (October 2002 in Miami): Oscar Alvarez (ICRAN-MAR Project), Billy Causey (Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary), Richard Curry (Biscayne National Park), Jaime Garzon- Ferreira (Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras), Hector Guzmann (Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute), Milton Haughton (CARICOM Fisheries Unit), Noel Jacobs (MBRS), Michelle Libby (TNC), Brian Luckhurst (Bermuda Fisheries), Liana McManus (RSMAS), Peter Murray (OECS Natural Resources Management Unit), Jamie Oliver (World Fish), Hazel Oxenford (UWI), Caroline Rogers (USGS), Luc St. Pierre (UNEP/CEP), Elizabeth Taylor (CORALINA), and Ernesto Weil (University of Puerto Rico). Many people provided input on the analysis of over- fishing including: Richard Appledorn (University of Puerto Rico), Julio Baisre (Ministry of the Fishing Industry of Acknowledgments
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8REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN Cuba), Daniel Matos-Caraballo (Fisheries Research Laboratory, Puerto Rico DNER), Bob Glazer (Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission), Paul Hoetjes (Dept. of Public Health and Environment, Netherlands Antilles), Barbara Kojis (Division of Fish and Wildlife, USVI DPNR), Craig Lilyestrom (Marine Resources Division, Puerto Rico DNER), Ken Lindeman (ED), Robin Mahon (Independent), John Munro (World Fish), Richard Nemeth (University of the Virgin Islands), Christy Pattengill-Semmens (REEF), Juan Posada (Universidad Simón Bolívar), Lionel Reynal (Institut Français de Recherche pour l™Exploitation de la Mer), and Mike Smith (Conservation International). Invaluable assistance with data and review of informa- tion on marine protected areas was provided by Carola Borja (Conservation International), Julia Brownlee (NOAA), Phillippe Bush (Dept. of Environment, Cayman Islands), Reinaldo Estrada (Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas, Cuba), Jose L. Gerhartz (UWI Center for Environment and Development), Mike Mascia (USEPA), Jeannette Mateo (TNC), Kalli de Meyer (Coral Resource Management), and Kim Thurlow (TNC). We would like to thank the following formal reviewers of the report who provided valuable comments on the man- uscript and maps: Jorge Cortés (Universidad de Costa Rica), George Warner (UWI), Herman Cesar (Cesar Environmen- tal Economics Consulting), Georgina Bustamante (Independent), Kristian Teleki (ICRAN), John McManus (NCORE), and Philip Kramer (TNC). Internal reviewers from WRI include Marta Miranda, Yumiko Kura, Suzie Greenhalgh, Jonathan Pershing, Steve Cox, and AnnMarie DeRose. Special thanks to Dan Tunstall and David Jhirad for their many reviews of the draft and steady encourage- ment, and to Gayle Coolidge for her skillful management of the review process. The following people reviewed specific parts of the text, provided data or general support: Richard Murphy (Ocean Futures Society); Bente Christensen (InterAmerican Development Bank); Pedro Alcolado (Institute of Oceanology, Cuba); Arthur Paterson, Roger Griffis, and Andy Bruckner (NOAA); Marea Hatziolos (World Bank); Daniel Prager (WRI); Marc Rammelare (National Environment and Planning Agency, Jamaica); Mercedes Silva (Caribbean Tourism Organization); Toby Gardner (University of East Anglia); Gillian Cambers (University of Puerto Rico); Steve Schill, Annette Huggins, and Tony Chatwin (TNC); Douglas Beard and Dan Phillips (USGS); Dan Zimble (ESRI); Ken Kassem (Independent); Anita Daley (Independent); Tom Laughlin, Nancy Daves, and Elizabeth McLanahan (NOAA); and Dick Wilbur (Department of State). Many other staff at WRI contributed to this project through publication, financial management, and outreach assistance including Adlai Amor, Beth Bahs-Ahern, Hyacinth Billings, Peter Denton, Chris Elias, Paul Mackie, Greg Mock, Georgia Moyka, and Elsie Vélez-Whited. Special thanks to Camila Bonifaz for cheerful support throughout the project. The report was edited by Kathleen Lynch and Karen Holmes. Many thanks for the valuable proofreading by Jo Tunstall and Elizabeth Selig. The report was embellished through the layout by Maggie Powell and the beautiful pho- tographs provided by Wolcott Henry, Toni Parras, Krishna Desai, Mark Spalding, Andy Bruckner, and Ed Green. LB / JM PHOTO: WOLCOTT HENRY ©
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REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN 9Coral reefs are an integral part of the Caribbean fabric, threading along thousands of kilometers of coastline. Teeming with fish and invertebrate life, these ecosystems provide food for millions of people. Buffering shorelines, they protect the land from the worst ravages of storms. Coral reefs form the foundation of the thriving Caribbean tourism industry, the region™s most important economic sec- tor. The reefs supply much of the sand for the region™s beau- tiful beaches and lure divers and snorkelers from far and wide to come and explore the reefs™ colorful and mysterious depths. The dazzling array of species living on coral reefs has also attracted the attention of the pharmaceutical indus- try as a potential source of new drugs and life-saving med- ical treatments. Unfortunately, these valuable ecosystems are degrading rapidly under the mounting pressure of many human activi- ties. Coastal development, land clearance, and intensive agri- culture all contribute damaging sediment and pollution to coastal waters, while overfishing is changing the ecological balance of coral reef environments. In addition, rising sea temperatures have prompted dramatic ficoral bleachingfl events in recent years, weakening and killing corals in many areas. At the same time, poorly understood coral diseases have spread rapidly across the region, devastating some of the main reef-building corals. Coral reef degradation and mortality will significantly impact the region™s economy through reduced habitat for fish and shellfish, diminished appeal for tourists, and a lessened capacity to protect the shoreline. Understanding the nature and extent of these threats and their likely economic impacts on the future productiv- ity of Caribbean coral reefs as sources of food, recreation, employment, and biopharmaceuticals is of central impor- tance to conservation and planning efforts. Numerous stud- ies are underway to monitor and assess reef conditions at particular locations in the Caribbean, but data gaps persist and, for the majority of reefs, little information is available. Many such efforts fail to combine ecosystem studies with monitoring of socioeconomic and environmental condi- tions, making it difficult to link changes in coral condition to specific causes.PURPOSE AND GOAL OF REEFS AT RISK IN THE CARIBBEAN The Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean project was launched to help protect and restore these valuable, threatened ecosys- tems by providing decision-makers and the public with information and tools to manage coastal habitats more effectively. The project focuses on compiling, integrating, and disseminating critical information on these precious resources for the entire Caribbean region. This information is intended both to raise awareness about the threats to and value of Caribbean reefs and to encourage greater protection and restoration efforts. Conducted by the World Resources Institute in cooper- ation with over 20 organizations working in the region, the project represents a unique, region-wide look at the threats facing Caribbean coral reefs. The collaborative process of data gathering and analysis has produced the first regionally consistent, detailed mapping of these threats. The project provides decision-makers and the public with important insights on links between human activities that stress and damage reef organisms and where degradation of reefs could be expected to occur, or may have already occurred. The maps created by the Reefs at Risk project will assist regional and national organizations in setting priorities for conserva- tion and natural resource management. The analytical tools and threat indicators will also allow managers to assess, for the first time, the source and scale of threats affecting those many reef areas for which more detailed monitoring infor- mation is unavailable. Executive SummaryCoral reefs Š a dazzling array of life. PHOTO: TONI PARRAS
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