The chief proponent of the “neo-lachrymose school,” Bat. Ye’or, pseudonym for Gisele Littman , has made famous the term “dhimmitude” to describe all the
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Mark R. Cohen 28Prologue The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and RealityIn the nineteenth century there was nearly universal consensus that Jews in the Islamic Middle AgesŠtaking al-Andalus , or Muslim Spain , as the modelŠlived in a fiGolden Agefl of Jewish-Muslim harmony, 1 an interfaith utopia of tolerance and convivencia .2 It was thought that Jews min- gled freely and comfortably with Muslims, immersed in Arabic-Islamic culture, including the language, poetry, philosophy, science, med- icine, and the study of ScriptureŠa society, furthermore, in which Jews could and many did ascend to the pinnacles of political power in Muslim government. This idealized picture went beyond Spain to encompass the entire Muslim world, from Baghdad to Cordova , and extended over the long centuries, bracketed by the Islamic conquests at one end and the era of Moses Maimonides (1138Œ1204) at the other. The idea stemmed in the ˚ rst instance from disappointment felt by central European Jewish historians as Emancipation-era promises of political and cultural equality remained unful˚ lled. They exploited the tolerance they ascribed to Islam to chastise their Christian neighbors for failing to rise to the standards set by non- Christian society hundreds of years earlier. 3 The interfaith utopia was to a certain extent a myth; it ignored, or left unmen- tioned, the legal inferiority of the Jews and periodic outbursts of violence. Yet, when compared to the gloomier history of Jews in the medieval Ashkenazic world of Northern Europe and late medieval Spain , and the far more frequent and severe persecution in those regions, it contained a very large kernel of truth. The image of the Golden Age remained dominant among scholars and in the gen- eral public throughout the nineteenth century, as Jews in Europe confronted a new, virulent strain of political anti-Semitism, reinforcing a much older feeling of aliena- tion and persecution in Christian lands. It endured well into the twentieth century, as the ˜ ames of Jew hatred burned ever brighter in Europe , culminating in the Holocaust. Mark R. CohenProfessor of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University, he holds the Khe- douri A. Zilka Professorship of Jewish Civilization in the Near East. His publi- cations include Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (Princeton University Press, 1994; re- vised edition 2008).
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•The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality 29In the twentieth century, Muslims appropriated the Jewish myth of the interfaith uto- pia as a weapon against Zionism and the State of Israel . They expressed this both in political broadsides and in books and articles about Jews or about non-Muslims in general in the Middle Ages. The leitmotif of these writings is Islamic fitolerancefl (Arabic samha or tasmuh), often contrasted with the persecutions of medieval Christian soci- ety. Characteristically, these writings soft-pedal the legal inferiority of the Jews and gloss over, or ignore, episodes of violence that call the harmony into question. 4 The response on the Jewish side has been to turn the idea of the Golden Age utopia on its head.5 Muhammad , the revisionists insist, was bent on extirpating the Jews from the very beginning. The Qur™an and other early Islamic sources are packed with anti-Jewish, even anti-Semitic, venom. And, rather than protecting the Jews, Islam persecuted them relentlessly, often as badly as medieval Christendom. This undisguised rejoinder to Arab/Muslim exploitation of the old Jewish depiction of interfaith harmony constitutes a ficounter-myth of Islamic persecution.fl Adapting the famous coinage of historian Salon W. Baron , who labeled historiography about medieval Jews living under Christendom a filachrymose conception of Jewish his- tory,fl 6 we may call this a fineo-lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history.fl 7 It This scene, depicting a Jew and a Muslim, is often used to illustrate the golden age of interfaith relations in Al-Andalus. El Libro de los Juegos, commissioned by Alphonse X of Castile, thirteenth century. Madrid, Escurial Library, fol. 63 recto.
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• 30 Prologue has taken hold in many circles and has ˜ ourished in the soil of the ongoing Israeli- Palestinian con˜ ict. The chief proponent of the fineo-lachrymose school,fl Bat Ye™or, pseudonym for Gisele Littman , has made famous the term fidhimmitudefl to describe all the humiliating restrictions imposed by Islam on Jews and Christians in Muslim-Arab lands since the rise of Islam. 8The highly politicized debate, exacerbated by the worldwide fear of Islamism and by the Islamophobia following the attack by radical Muslims on the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001, makes the questions that underlie this book all the more controversial, but, at the same time, all the more begging for dispassionate inquiry. Jewish-Muslim relations: The comparative perspective The most useful way to understand Jewish-Muslim relations in the Middle Ages is to compare the Muslim world with the Christian world of Northern Europe . The choice of Northern Europe is dictated by the fact that there relations between Jews and Christians, reasonably tolerable in the early Middle Ages, declined precipitously later on to become the worst in Europe, leading the way in persecuting and ulti- mately expelling the Jews from Christian society. By choosing this case to compare with the Islamic world, one is able to isolate the speci˚ c factors determining how Jews were treated by the majority of society. In this way, this comparative study also constructs a paradigm that can be used to explain Jewish-gentile relations in pre- modern times in general. If Islam seems to have been more tolerant than Christendom, this is true only in a quali˚ ed sense. In the Middle Ages, tolerance, in the modern, liberal meaning of full equality, was not considered to be a virtue to be emulated. Monotheistic religions were by nature mutually intolerant . Adherents of the religion in power considered it their right and duty to treat the others as inferiors rejected by God, and, in extreme cases, to treat them harshly, even to encourage them (in some cases by force) to abandon their faith in favor of the faith of the rulers. Though the religious minori- ties (Jews living under Christian rule; Jews and Christians living under Muslim rule) were hardly happy with their second-class status and legal inferiority, let alone the occasional persecutions, for the most part they accepted their inequality and subordination with resignation. As long as they were allowed to live in security and practice their religion without interferenceŠthis was fitolerationfl in the medieval sense of the wordŠthey were generally content. For them, as for their masters, the hierarchical relationship between chosen religion and rejected religion, between superior and inferior, between governing and governed, was part of the natural order of things. The subjugated people may have dreamed of a reversal of the hierarchy, in history or in the messianic era, but for the time being, generally speaking, they bore their fate with a certain amount of equanimity.
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•The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality 31The paradigm The paradigm that results from this comparative approach delineates ˚ ve inter- related factors that explain why anti-Jewish violence was so much less prevalent in the Islamic world than in Northern Europe . Violence was related, in the ˚ rst instance, to the primacy of religious exclusivity. Historically, religious exclusivity characterized both Islam and Christianity. But anti-Jewish violence was more pro- nounced in Christendom because innate religious antagonism, present from the ˚ rst decades of Christianity, was combined with other erosive forces. The second component of the paradigm is legal status; namely, the evolution of a special law for the Jews and a system of baronial or monarchical possessory rightsŠthough varied in character and uneven in its application in different times and placesŠthat could be manipulated in an arbitrary manner. This law frequently clashed with its competitor, papal policy, and the Jews were frequently caught in the middle. The third element concerns the economic circumstances that excluded the Jews from the most respected walks of life. Religious exclusivity, a special, arbitrary legal status, and economic marginalization interacted with another adverse factor, the fourth element of the paradigm: social exclusion, which steadily robbed the Jews of their rank in the hierarchical social order. Last, the gradual replacement of the ethnic pluralism of Germanic society of the early Middle Ages by a medieval type of finationalism,fl paralleling the spread of Catholic religious exclusivity to the masses and the rise of the crusading spirit in the eleventh century, contributed to the enhancement of the Jew™s fiothernessfl and to his eventual exclusion from most of western Christendom by the end of the ˚ fteenth century. Before that, the Jews survived among ChristiansŠwere fitoler- atedfl in a manner of speakingŠin part because they performed useful economic services for Christian rulers, such as importing precious spices and other goods from the East and paying taxes from the proceeds of commerce and moneylending; and in part because of a doctrine of Saint Augustine that proclaimed that the Jews played an important role in Christian salvation history as a fossil religion: wit- nesses, by their abjugated state, to the triumph of Christianity, bearers of the Old Testament, and ultimately by their conversion to Christianity at the time of the Second Coming of Christ . In the Islamic world, the erosive factors described above were less severe. Religious exclusivity was modulated by the multiplicity of non-Muslim religions, primarily Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian. The Qur™an itself, for all its harsh language refer- ring to Christians and Jews, contains the nucleus of a kind of religious pluralism. 9 A Qur™anic verse, fithere is no compulsion in religionfl (Sura 2:256), was understood to mean that the non-Muslims were not to be forcibly converted. Moreover, as vener- ated fiPeople of the Bookfl ( Ahl al-Kitab), Jews and Christians were allowed to live securely in their autonomous communities and to develop: they were not fossils. Legally speaking, Jews shared with other non-Muslims the status of dhimms, or See article by John Tolan, p. 145. See article by Mark
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• 32 Prologue fiprotected people.fl In return for security, freedom of religion, and communal autonomy, they were obligated by the Qur™an to pay an annual poll tax. They were also subject, in theory, to regulations prescribed in the so-called Pact of ‚Umar and kindred documents, which imposed limitations on their conduct. New houses of worship were not to be built and old ones could not be repaired. They were to act humbly in the presence of Muslims. In their liturgical practice they had to honor the preeminence of Islam. They were further required to differentiate themselves from Muslims by their clothing and by eschewing symbols of honor. Other restrictions excluded them from positions of authority in Muslim government. The Muslim pragmatismDe facto, however, these discriminatory regulations, most of them originating outside Islam, were largely honored in the breach, often with the tacit approval of Muslim rulers. The rules limiting the free practice of religion were frequently overridden in practice by the more pragmatic policy of the conquest treaties, which protected houses of worship and guaranteed freedom of religion. The discriminatory restrictions were likely adopted by Christian converts to Islam serving in Muslim govern- ment who wished not to be confused with their former coreligionists. 10 Many of the rules of differentiation, it has recently been shown by the historian Milka Levy-Rubin , imitated discriminatory practices in Sasanian society aimed against the lowest class of Zoroastrian society. 11 Whether they originated in Byzantine or in Sasanian practice, however, many of these foreign practices con˜ icted with the pragmatic spirit of filive and let livefl of early Islam and so could often be overlooked or ignored in the day-to-day realities of Muslim and non-Muslim coexistence. This coexistence is particularly evident in economic life. Jews were not limited to a small range of pursuits isolated from the rest of the population in deplored profes- sions like moneylending, as in Europe. They worked as craftsmen, pharmacists, and physicians; as craftsmen in textiles, in glassmaking, and in jewelry; as retailers in the marketplace specializing in a whole host of products, including foodstuffs; in long- distance commerce, as government functionaries; and in many other walks of life. In these endeavors, Muslims and Jews (and also Christians) manifested filoyalties of category,fl to use terminology coined by historian Roy Mottahedeh , that straddled the Muslim and non-Muslim divide and mitigated the discrimination inherent to the ever-present religious hierarchy. 12 In the Islamic marketplace, there existed a substantial degree of interdenominational cooperation. Jews mixed freely with their Muslim counterparts, even forming part- See Counterpoint, The Pact of ‘Umar, fiflThese discriminatory regulations, These discriminatory regulations, most of them originating outside most of them originating outside Islam, were largely honored in Islam, were largely honored in the breach, often with the tacit the breach, often with the tacit approval of Muslim rulers. approval of Muslim rulers.
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•The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality 33nerships, with a minimum of friction. Jews lent money to Muslims, but the reverse was also true. When, after about the twelfth century, Jewish economic circumstances declined, this was not a confessional phenomenon alone, but one that Jews shared with the Muslim majority, though as a minority group they naturally experienced greater hardship. Speaking in social-anthropological termsŠand this provides an important correc- tive to the view that Islam is fundamentally oppressive, if not persecutoryŠthe rules of the Pact of ‚Umar and other restrictions served as a means to create and preserve a finaturalfl hierarchy, in the sense that it character- izes most religious societies in premodern times. In the Islamic hierarchy, everyone had a rank, including non-Muslims, who occupied a low rank, to be sure, but a secure rank nonetheless. Jews occupied a per- manent niche within the hierarchical social order of Islam, and, though marginalized, they were not ostracized or expelled. The original and long-lasting ethnic and religious pluralism of Islamic society encouraged a cer- tain tolerance of diversity. The diffusion of hostility among two and in many places three fiin˚ delfl religions helped mitigate the Jews™ fiothernessfl and prevent the emer- gence of the irrational hatred we call anti-Semitism. As humiliating as the restric- tions in the Pact of ‚Umar were (when successfully enforced), Jews and other non- Muslim People of the Book seem to have grudgingly accepted them because they guaranteed their security, and because they, especially the religious leaders, wished to maintain a separate identity for their own communities. 13 In such an atmosphere, JewsŠand not just the philosophers and the physicians among themŠfraternized with Muslims on a regular basis with a minimum of hostility. This sociability con- stituted an essential ingredient in the cultural interchange between Jews and Arabs in the high Middle Ages. For all these reasons, the Jews of Islam had substantial con˚ dence in the dhimma system. If they kept a low pro˚ le and paid their annual poll tax, they could expect to be protected and to be free from economic discriminationŠnot to be forcefully converted to Islam, massacred, or expelled. To be sure, the system occasionally broke down. A ruler, goaded by pious Islamic clerics, might crack down on the dhimms for ignoring the regulations of the Pact of ‚Umar. But serious persecutions were exceptional. The most infamous one occurred in the mid-twelfth century, when the fanatical Muslim Berber Almohads, the fiIslamistsfl of their time, destroyed entire Jewish communities in North Africa and Spain , and forced thousands of Jews and Christians to accept Islam, even as they imposed their own stringent form of Islam upon impious Muslims. Also notorious, because of the rare preservation of detailed Islamic and Christian sources, was the destruction of houses of worship and forced conversions ordered by the fimadfl caliph al-Hakim in Egypt and Palestine at the beginning of the eleventh century. Violent, too, was the assassination in 1066 of the See Nota bene, al-Hakim, fiflIn the Islamic marketplace, In the Islamic marketplace, there existed a substantial there existed a substantial degree of interdenominational degree of interdenominational cooperation. cooperation.
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•The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality 35By the tenth century, therefore, some two and a half centuries after the rise of Islam, Jews had made a total and largely effortless transition from Aramaic to Arabic and now used Arabic, not only in daily speech but for nearly everything they wrote. This prepared them to share lock, stock, and barrel in the high culture of Islamic society. Islam came into contact with the science, medicine, and philosophy of the Greco- Roman world centuries earlier than European Christendom. Translated early on into Arabic, these works gave rise to what the German scholar Adam Mez famously called fiDie Renaissance des Islams.fl 16 Jews of the Fertile Crescent , the heartland of the Islamic Empire and the ˚ rst center of the new Arabic science, medicine, and philosophy, had both access to and interest in the translated texts read by Muslim intellectuals. This facilitated the cultural convivencia of the Judeo-Arabic world, which began in the eastern Islamic domains and spread to the Muslim West. It led to Jewish adoption of philosophy, science, and medicineŠphilosophy serving as a handmaiden of religious truths, as it did for Islamic philosophers themselves. See Part IV. The Bible translated into Arabic by Saadia Gaon in the tenth century. Egyptian manuscript copy, fi rst pages of the book Psalms, 1584–85. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ms. or., Arabic 1, fol. 232 and 233 verso.
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• 36 Prologue The Arabic and Islamic firenaissancefl laid the groundwork for other Jewish cultural innovations. The Bible was translated into Arabic. Hebrew as a language began to be studied fiscienti˚ cally,fl so to speak, using linguistic tools in vogue among Arab grammarians. But nearly everything Jews wrote they wrote in Arabic, and this was not limited to philosophy, for which Hebrew entirely lacked a vocabulary. Poetry, the major exception, was composed in Hebrew, but it, too, bore the stamp of Arabic culture. Arabic poets prided themselves in writing in the language of their Holy Scripture, the Qur™an, believing Arabic to be the most beautiful of all languages. Jews followed suit by choosing biblical Hebrew for their poetry, asserting the wonderment and uniqueness of the language of their own scripture. The social setting for this new poetry also followed the Arabic model. The poems were recited and sung in gardens, like the gardens of the caliph™s palace or of private homes, the physical setting for Arabic poetry. Jews continued to compose religious poetry for the synagogue, but it, too, employed biblical Hebrew and Arabic meter, and borrowed themes from Islamic pietistic thought. 17 Poetry in the Arabic mode, and the way of living that accompanied it, led many Hebrew poets, especially in their later years, to question the frivolities of their youth. 18 Judah Halevi represents the most extreme example of this rejection of the Golden Age; toward the end of his life he abandoned his native Spain and embarked on a pious pilgrimage to the Holy Land. 19One of the greatest rabbis of the Middle Ages, Saadia Gaon (d. 942), rightly called the fifatherfl of Judeo-Arabic culture, wrote poetry. He served as head of the great yeshiva located in Baghdad, one of the two most important religious centers for Jews throughout the Islamic domains. He composed the ˚ rst comprehensive Jewish prayer book, writing the directions for the worshipper in Arabic (the prayers, of course, remained in their original Hebrew) and including poems of his own. Saadia also compiled monographs on Jewish law in Arabic, as did other geonim, or heads of the yeshiva. Even the supposedly sacrosanct realm of Jewish law was not immune to Islamic in˜ uence. In fact, in the works of some scholars, the entire structure of Jewish legal discourse was altered in accordance with Islamic categories, while some of the content of Islamic law in˜ uenced Jewish legal thought as well. 20 Saadia was also a pioneer in applying Greco-Arabic rational philosophic categories to Jewish thought in a systematic way, adopting current methods from Islamic theologians. 21 Maimonides (1138Œ1204), the acme of Judeo-Arabic philosophy, strove to make Judaism compatible with neo-Aristotelian philosophy. 22Other religious developments within Judaism also drew inspiration from Islam. The Karaite movementŠthe ˚ rst oppositional movement in Judaism since the ascen- dancy of the Talmudic rabbinic scholars in late antiquity over the SadduceesŠarose in the eastern Islamic world at just about the same time and in the same place that Shi‚ism began to ˜ ourish, in opposition to the dominant Sunni fiorthodoxy.fl 23 Later on, Su˚ pietism exerted a powerful in˜ uence on Jewish religious thought and prac- See Nota bene, Saadia Gaon, pp. 758-761. See article by Phillip Ackerman Lieberman,
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•The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality 37tice as early as the eleventh century in Spain and then, beginning in the early thir- teenth century, in Egypt . Abraham , the son of Maimonides (d. 1237), was a fiJewish Su˚ ,fl as were his descendants, the leaders of the Jewish community in Egypt , for several more generations. 24 The Arabic language gave Jews entrance to the corridors of Muslim power and made possible the remarkable careers of such luminaries as Samuel ha-Nagid ibn Naghrela in the eleventh century, head of the Jewish community, poet, Talmudist, and vizier of Granada (the father of the Jewish vizier assassinated in 1066), as well as scores of other Jewish denizens of Islamic courts, many of whom occupy pages in Islamic chronicles. Other dignitaries, as well as merchants, less well known because they did not leave books behind, but whose quotidian lives are described in minute detail in the documents of the Cairo Geniza, are no less important as Jewish exemplars of the Jewish-Muslim coexistence that reigned for several centuries during the Islamic high Middle Ages. For such illustrious ˚ gures in the Jewish elite, those centuries were indeed a Golden Age. 1. Much of the ˚ rst part of this essay relies on my book Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984; new edition with new introduction and afterword, 2008) . Much of the second part draws on my article fiThe ‚Convivencia™ of Jews and Muslims in the High Middle Ages,fl in The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish , ed. Moshe Ma ‚oz (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2009), 54Œ65. 2. For a discussion of the debate over convivencia and its corollary, the tension between tolerance and intolerance in Spanish history, of which the Jewish thesis was a part, see Alex Novikoff, fiBetween Tolerance and Intolerance in Medieval Spain: An Historiographic Enigma,fl Medieval Encounters 11 (2005): 7Œ36. 3. This insight was ˚ rst expressed, as far as I know, by Bernard Lewis in his essay fiThe Pro-Islamic Jews,fl Judaism 17 (1968): 402: fiThe myth was invented by Jews in 19th century Europe as a reproach to ChristiansŠand taken up by Muslims in our time as a reproach to Jews.fl 4. See the representative sample of books in Arabic and other languages by Arabs and others treating the subject of the Jews of Islam, often apologetically, mentioned in the notes in chapter 1 of my Under Crescent and Cross . 5. The clarion call of danger from Muslim exploitation of the myth of Islamic tolerance was sounded in an essay by British historian Cecil Roth in the Zionist Organization of America™s New Palestine (October 4, 1946), and in the British Zionist Jewish Forum in the same month. The essay was virtually forgotten until it was reprinted by the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), in the fiMyths and Factsfl supplement to its Near East Report , shortly after the Six-Day War of June 1967. Coincidentally, at exactly the same time as the Roth essay (September 1967), a more conciliatory article appeared in the magazine the Jewish Spectator , by Trude Weiss-Rosmarin, entitled fiToward Jewish-Muslim Dialogue.fl 6. See his fiGhetto and Emancipation,fl Menorah Journal 14, no. 6 (June 1928): 515Œ26, at the end; reprinted in the Menorah Treasury : Harvest of Half a Century , ed. Leo W. Swartz (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1964), 59Œ63. 7. Mark R. Cohen, fiThe Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History,fl Tikkun (May/June, 1991): 55Œ60; also fiIslam and the Jews: Myth, Counter-Myth, History,fl Jerusalem Quarterly , no. 38 (1986): 125Œ37; and Under Crescent and Cross , chapter 1. 8. Of her many books, Le Dhimmi: Pro˚ l de l™opprimé en Orient et en Afrique de Nord depuis la conquête arabe (Paris: Anthropos, 1980) is representative. 9. For a thoughtful discussion of Islam™s pluralistic approach to religion, grounded in the Qur™an, see Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). See also Heribert Busse, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Af˚ liations (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1998), 33Œ35. Part 4 of my Under Crescent and Cross discusses sociological factors underlying this Islamic pluralism. See article by Elisha Russ- Fishbane, See Nota bene, Samuel ibn Naghrela, See Nota bene, The Cairo Geniza, pp. 99-101.
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• Prologue 10. This is the view of Antoine Fattal, Le statut légal des non-Musulmans en pays d™Islam (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1958), 67.11. On the Byzantine origins of stipulations in Islamic law, see A. Fattal, Le statut légal des non-Musulmans en pays d™Islam . On the Sasanian roots, see Milka Levy-Rubin, Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire: From Surrender to Coexistence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), chapter 5. 12. See Roy P. Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 108Œ15; Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross , 246. 13. See Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross , chapter 6, and, regarding frequent non-Muslim recourse to Islamic reli- gious courts, Uriel I. Simonsohn, A Common Justice: The Legal Allegiance of Christians and Jews under Early Islam (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011). 14. Among the many discussions of this episode is Moshe Perlmann, fiEleventh-Century Andalusian Authors on the Jews of Granada,fl Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research 18 (1948Œ1949): 843Œ61. The poem is handily accessible in Bernard Lewis™s translation in Olivia Remie Constable, ed., Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 96Œ99; excerpts from the main Arabic and Jewish sources about the event, translated by Amin T. Tibi and Gerson D. Cohen, respectively, are also found there. The Hebrew source, like the Arabic chronicle and the Arabic poem, share the view that Joseph acted high-handedly while in of˚ ce. 15. For a discussion of persecutions of Jews under Islam, see Under Crescent and Cross , chapter 10. 16. Adam Mez, Die Renaissance des Islams (Heidelberg: Winter, 1922). The book has been translated into many languages. 17. This later phenomenon is discussed thoroughly by Raymond P. Scheindlin in The Song of the Distant Dove: Judah Halevi™s Pilgrimage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). The corpus of ˚ fty-˚ ve Geniza documents relating to Halevi was published, with a long commentary by Moshe Gil and Ezra Fleischer, Yehudah ha-Levi u-vene h ugo: 55 te‚udot min ha-Genizah (Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 2001). 18. Ross Brann, The Compunctious Poet: Cultural Ambiguity and Hebrew Poetry in Muslim Spain (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). 19. Raymond Scheindlin, The Song of the Distant Dove. The more common view, that Halevi was a fiproto-Zionist,fl is forcefully reiterated in a recent biography by Hillel Halkin, Yehuda Halevi (New York: Schocken, 2010). 20. The in˜ uence of formal features of Islamic law on Judaism has been the subject of much scholarship, while the most important work on the in˜ uence of the content of Islamic law on the Jewish legists has been dominated by the fruitful investigations of Gideon Libson, for example, fiIslamic In˜ uence on Medieval Jewish Law? Sepher ha-‚Arevut (Book of Surety) of Rav Shmuel ben Hofni Gaon and Its Relationship to Islamic Law,fl Studia Islamica 73 (1990): 5Œ23, and his Jewish and Islamic Law: A Comparative Study of Custom during the Gaonic Period (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003). 21. A succinct introduction to Jewish philosophy in the Muslim world is found in Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 22. Of the many works about Maimonides and his works, see, recently, Joel L. Kraemer, Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilization™s Greatest Minds (New York: Doubleday, 2008). 23. An excellent overview of the fiKaraite problemfl in Jewish historiography is Meira Polliack, fiMedieval Karaism,fl in Martin Goodman, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), chapter 12. A re˚ ned treatment of the relations between Karaites and Rabbanites, particularly as re˜ ected in the documents of the Cairo Geniza, is contained in Marina Rustow, Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008). 24. The foremost scholar of the Su˚ phenomenon in Judaism is Paul Fenton. See his chapter, fiJudaism and Su˚ sm,fl in Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) .
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