the Banu al-Nadir and also to the Jews of Khaybar, The Banu al-Nadir were a subtribe of the Banu Judham, who embraced Qurayza met their misfortune.
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VIKASPUBLISHINGHOUSEPVTLTD5AnsariRoad,NewDelhi110002SavoyChambers,5WallaceStreet,Bombay40000110FirstMainRoad,GandhiNagar,Bangalore5600098/1-BChowringheeLane,Calcutta70001680CanningRoad,Kanpur208004Copyright(gBarakatAhmad,1979ISBN70690804X1V02A2501PrintedattheIHMMRPrintingPress,Tughlaqabad,NewDelhi-110062INMEMORIAM’ABDULCAZIZCaliforniaTrinidadTothosewhobelieveAnddodeedsofrighteousnessHathAllahpromisedforgivenessAndagreatreward.TheQur’an,V,9.
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CONTENTSAcknowledgementsV111Preface1XPROLOGUE3INTRODUCTION2I.THEJEWSOFARABIAONTHEEVEOFTHEHIJRAH25II.THEPEOPLEOFTHESAHIFAH37III.THEJEWISHSUPPORTTOTHEMEDINANOPPOSITION51IV.THEFAILUREOFTHECONFEDERACY67V.THELASTENCOUNTER95VI.THENATUREANDEXTENTOFTHECONFLICT103EPILOGUE126Bibliography127Index135MAPS1.MEDINAINTHEFIRSTYEAROFTHE#7/iL4#312.MEDINAATTHETIMEOFTHEBATTLEOFTHEAHZAB693.KHAYBARANDTHEPOSITIONOFTHEHOSTILETRIBES98
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIamindebtedtothefollowingpublishersforpermissiontoquotefromthebookslisted:PrincetonUniversityPress,HistoryRemembered,RecoveredandInventedbyBernardLewis;ColumbiaUniversityPress,ASocialandReligiousHistoryoftheJewsbySaloWittmayerBaron;OxfordUniversityPress,MuhammadatMedinaandMuhammadatMeccabyW.MontgomeryWatt;TheLifeofMuhammadandTheTraditionsofIslam:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofHadithLiteraturebyA.Guillaume;UniversityofCaliforniaPress,AMediterraneanSocietybyS.D.Goitein;SchockenBooksInc.,JewsandArabsbyS.D.Goitein;CharlesScribner’sSons,TheShapingoftheJewishHistorybyEllisRivkin;HeinemannEducationalBooks,TheCriticalHistorianbyG.KitsonClarke;TheMarlinPressLtd.,HistoryandSocialTheorybyGordonLefT;PantheonBooks,adivisionofRandomHouseInc.,andAllenLane,PenguinPublishingCo.Ltd.,MohammedbyMaximeRodinson,translatedbyAnneCarter;MacmillanPublishingCo.Inc.DefyandEndurebyEversleyBelfield;Simon&SchusterInc.,Allah’sCommonwealthbyF.E.PetersandE.J.Brill,EncyclopaediaofIslam.IamalsogratefultotheEditorsofMuslimWorld,IslamicCulture,InternationalSocialScienceJournal(Unesco)andBulletinofJohnReylandsLibraryforpermissiontoquotefromtheirjournals.TheprologuehasbeentakenfromBernardLewis’HistoryRemembered,RecoveredandInvented,pp54-55andtheEpiloguefromEllisRivkin’sTheShapingoftheJewishHistory,pp106-107and118-119.Theopeningquotationsofthevariouschaptershavebeentakenfromthefollowingbooks:ChapterI,SolWittmayerBaron’sASocialandReligiousHistoryoftheJews,Vol.Illp.65;ChapterII,F.E.Peter’sAllah’sCommonwealth,p.63,ChapterIIIandV.MaximeRodinson’sMohammed,p.160andp.214;ChapterIV,KitsonClarke’sTheCriticalHistorian,p.51andChapterVI,ArnoldJ.Toynbee’sGreekHistoricalThought,p.103.(viii)PREFACEIntergrouprelations,speciallywhenreligionisalso.involved,arefullofconflictandsuffering.Martyrologyfeedsthemyth,andprejudiceaddsbitternesstothelegend.Politicalexpediencyandbiasedscholarshipinvestthelegendwiththestatusofhistory.TheaccountofMuhammad’srelationswiththeJewsoftheHijazisoneofsuchlegends.IhaveanalysedthischapterofearlyMuslimhistorywhichhasbeenuncriticallyacceptedbothbyMuslimandnon-Muslimhistorians.Ifthisre-examinationsucceedsinraisingvaliddoubtsabouttheevidenceonwhichtheaccountisbased,theattemptwasworthmaking.OfthemanyfriendswhohavehelpedmeatvariousstagesoftheprogressofthisstudyIwishtothank,inparticular,ProfessorsBernardLewis,NicolaZiadehandHusainMohammadJafri.Prof.NicolaZiadehhelpedmetoformulatemyideaswhenthebookwaslittlemorethanaconversationpiece.Withouthisencouragementthisbookwouldhavenevermaterialised.Prof.HusainMohammadJafrisubjectedeachchapterofthefirstdrafttodetailedcriticism.Prof.BernardLewiswentoverthemanuscriptwordbywordandgavepracticalandhelpfulsuggestionswhichhaveinfluencedalmosteverychapterofthisbook.Iconsidermyselfmostfortunatetohavebeenalertedbyhimtothemanypitfallswhichabooksuchasthisisboundtoencounter.ThebookhasgreatlybenefitedfromhispenetratingcommentsandhisadviceonthevalueofMuslimandJewishsources.Mydebttothesefriendswhohavebeensogenerouswiththeirtimeandadviceisimmeasurable.Noneofthem,however,isresponsiblefortheviewsandopinionsexpressedinthisbook.Infacttheyholdoppositeviewsonseveralpointsraisedinthisbook.Myonlycon-solationisthatinmostofthecasestheircriticismwasnotconcurrent,whereveritwasIbowedtotheircumulativejudgment.Allerrorsaresadlymine.ManythanksareduetoDr.M.A.Aziz,theTrusteeofAbdulAzizTrust(Trinidad)andMr.MahmudD.Aziz,theConsul-GeneralofTrinidadandTobagoinNewYork,whoprovidedinvaluablehelpinthefinalstagesofthiswork.(ix)
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IshouldnotwishthisbooktogooutwithoutanexpressionofgratitudetoProfessorArthurDelbridgeofMacquarieUniversity,Australia,forhishelpinreadingandcorrectingthemanuscriptofthiswork.Iamindebtedtomydaughter,Sarah,forhereditorialassistance.Shehelpedmewithreferences,notesandspeciallyGermanandHebrewtexts.Hercriticismsremovedambiguitiesoflanguageandargument.FinallyIhavetothankProf.LoisA.Giffen,whohasspentmuchtimeŠwhichshecouldillaffordŠinfirstpointingoutdiscrepanciesinthemanuscriptandthencorrectingtheproofsofthebook.TamgratefultoProf.JohnS.BadeauandProf.HowardWrigginswhoprovidedmewithanopportunityofworkinginthepleasant,some-timesprovocative,butalwayssympatheticenvironmentofColumbiaUniversity.BARAKATAHMADNewYorkMay1975i(x)-PROLOGUETheHistoriandoesnotsetouttoproveathesis,orselectmaterialtoestablishsomepoint,butfollowstheevidencewhereitleads.Nohumanbeingisfreefromhumanfailings,amongthemloyaltiesandprejudiceswhichmaycolorhisperceptionandpresentationofhistory.Theessenceofthecriticalscholarlyhistorianisthatheisawareofthisfact,andinsteadofindulginghisprejudicesseekstoidentifyandcorrectthem.Therecoverersofhistorybeginofcoursewithwhatisrememberedandtransmitted.Unliketheirpredecessors,however,theyarenotcontentmerelytorepeatandpassonthememoriesofthepast.Theyseekrathertofillitsgapsandcorrectitserrors,andtheirgoalsareaccuracyandunderstanding.Afrequentresult,andsometimesperhapsevenapurposeoftheirefforts,isthatbyanalyzingthepasttheykillit.Theminuteandcriticalexaminationoftreasuredmemoriesmayrevealthemtobefalseandmisleading.Oncethisexposurebecomesgenerallyknown,thatpartofthepastlosesitspower.Thescholarlyrecoverersofthepastmaythereforeexerciseapowerfuldestructiveinfluence.Incompensation,theycanbringmuchthatisnewandenrichthecollectivememoryaswellascleansingit.BERNARDLEWIS1
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INTRODUCTIONHistorians,commentatorsoftheQur’anandeminenttransmittershavecommittedfrequenterrorsinreportingstoriesandevents.Theyacceptedthemastheyweretransmitted,withoutregardfortheirvalue.Theydidnotcheckthemwiththeprinciplesunderlyingsuchhistoricalsituations,nordidtheycomparethemwithsimilarmaterial.Theyneithermeasuredthemwiththeyardstickofphilosophy,withthehelpofknowledgeofthenatureofthings,norwiththehelpofspeculationandhistoricalinsight.Therefore,theystrayedfromthetruthandfoundthemselveslostinthedesertofuntenableassumptionsanderrors.ŠIBNKHALDUNIn1833theRabbiatWiesbaden,AbrahamGeigerwroteaprizeessayWashatMohammedausdemJudenthumeaufgenommen71RudolfLeszynsky,whoalsowroteabookonarelatedsubject,2calledGeiger’sessay”epochemachenderSchrift”(epoch-makingwrit-ing).SincethenseveralbooksandarticlesdealingwithvariousaspectsoftheMuslim-Jewishrelationshavebeenwritten.Thelatestis,probably,Goitein’sbookJewsandArabs?ForWesternscholarstheoriginofIslam,andspeciallyoftheQur°an,hasalwaysbeenafascinatingsubject.”WhoinstructedtheProphet,whoweretheseteachers?”4Afterobservingthat”asomewhatunevenliteraturehasgrownuparoundthequestion”5,Goiteinconcludesthatitseems1Geiger’sbookwastranslatedintoEnglishbyF.M.YoungandprintedinIndiain1896underthetitleJudaismandIslam.KtavPublishingHouse,NewYork,republishedthetranslationin1970.2DieJudeninArabienzurZeitMohammeds(Berlin,1910).3S.D.Goitein,JewsandArabs.-TheirContactsThroughtheAges(NewYork,1955).4Ibid.,5Ibid.,INTRODUCTIONreasonabletoassumethatinhisearlyyearsMuhammadhadclosecontactwithJews,whowerenotverydifferentfromthoseportrayedintheTalmudicliterature”1.ConsequentlythebeliefsoftheApostle’sJewishneighboursandthenatureofhiscontactwiththemhadadirectbearingonthesubstanceofwhatheborrowedfromJudaism.West-ernscholarshipis,however,mainlyconfinedtothesefactors.ItsresearchworkhashelpedusinunderstandingtheApostle’srelationswiththeJewsoftheHijazandspeciallythoseofYathrib.Butsomeofthereportsonwhichthisresearchdependshavenotbeencriticallyexamined.Scholarshavealsonotpaidsufficientattentiontothesocio-politicalaspectsofintergrouprelations.RabbiGeiger,whosebookis”stillvaluable”2hadboththeadvantageanddisadvantageofworkingwithoutthevastArabicliteraturethemodernorientalisthasathisdisposal.3ButAl-MukhtasarftTa*nkhal-BasharAofAbual-Fida:>(672/1273-732/1331)wasavailabletohimthroughJ.Gagnier,DevitaMohammedis(Oxford,1723),J.J.ReiskeandJ.G.Chr.Adler’sAnnatesMoslemici(Leipzig,1754andCopenhagen,1789-94)andHistoriaAnteislamica.Hewasalsoacquaintedwithal-Baydawi’scommentaryontheQur^anandthe”excellentunpublishedcommentarybyElpherarwhichbeginswiththe7thSurah”.5Hedealtwithhissubjectfairlyextensively.FromhispointofviewthenatureoftheApostle’srelationshipwiththeJewsofYathribwasnotpertinent.HemadeapassingreferencetotheBanuQaynuqac,theBanual-NadirandalsototheJewsofKhaybar,butdidnotmentiontheBanuQurayzah.HemusthaveknownaboutthemnotonlythroughAbual-Fida*butalsothroughthecommentaryontheQuPan.Ifhehadthoughtitnecessaryhehadthematerialathandtodealwiththestruggle”forcedontheJewsandMuhammad”,whichaccordingtoGoitein,”hasleftitsmarkontheHolyBookofIslam.”61S.D.Goitein,JewsandArabs,p.56.2Ibid.,p.237.3SuchworksasIbnHisham’sSirah,al-WaqidJ’sMaghazi,andIbnSacd’sTabaqatwereneitherpublishedbythennorprobablyknowntohim.4Itisauniversalhistorycoveringthepre-lslamicperiodandMuslimhistorydownto729/1329.5Geiger,p.VIIYahyab.Ziyadb.cAbdAllahb.Manzur(144/761-207/822)knownasal-Farra*wroteacommentaryontheQur^an,Macania!-Qur°an,whichisstillinmanuscriptform.6Goitein,p.64.3
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MUHAMMADANDTHEJEWSInotherwords,whateverpastthehistorianchoosestodiscover,hedoesitwiththehistoricalconsciousnessofhistime.”ThereisnotapartofhistorywhichisobjectiveŠthefactsŠandanotherpartŠthehistorian’sinterpretationorjudgmentŠwhichissubjective.Judg-mentandinterpretationareequallyinherentindecidingwhatarefacts,whicharetherelevantonesinacertaincontext,andhowsignificanttheyare.”1IbnIshaq,al-WaqidiandIbnSa°d,whowroteduringtheearlyAbbasidperiod,havebeencloselyscrutinisedintermsofShPiteandSunnitepartisanship,ortheirbiastowardsB.UmayyahorB.al-&Abbas.Muslimhistoriansandorientalistshavebeensopre-occupiedwith”theoutbreakofthefitnd”‘1andtheearlyschisminIslamthattheyhaveoverlookedthetotalenvironmentinwhichtheeighth/ninthcenturysirahandmaghaziwritersworked.TheynotedShiciteandSunnitetendenciesoftheirearlyauthors,theirUmayyadandAbbasidbias,andtheirattitudetotheprevailingtheologicalcontroversies.ButthehistoricalconsciousnessofIbnIshaqandotherswasinfluencedbyseveralotherfactorsalso.AsPetersenobserves:”TheAbbasidperiod’spoliticalsituationsmighthavein-fluencedthehistoricalrecorders’changingattitudestotheearliesthistoryofIslam.”3Butthesesituationsdidnotinvolveonly”thenewrulers*settlingwiththeirrevolutionarypast,thecoalitionwithShicisminthecombatagainsttheSyriancaliphate”.4Newlandswerebeingconquered,moreandmorenon-Arabandnon-Muslimswiththeirdistinctcultures,languagesandreligionswereenteringtheworldofIslam,Theybroughtnewideasandnewproblems.Allthesenewelementshadanimpactonthethinkingoftheearlyauthors.FromourpointofviewtheirattitudetocontemporaryJewishlifeundertheAbbasidsisavitalfactorinjudgingtheinformationtheyimpartontherelationsoftheJewswiththeApostle.OurearliestandmostimportantsourceforeventswhichtookplaceintheApostle’slifetimeisMuhammadibnIshaqb.Yasarb.KhiyarwhowasborninMedinainabout85/704duringthelastyearofcAbdal-Malik’sreign.Hisgrandfather,Yasar,wasamongthose1GordonLeff,HistoryandSocialTheory(University,Ala.:TheUniversityofAlabamaPress,1969),p.124.2ErlingLadewigPetersen,°AliandMucdwiyainEarlyArabicTradition(Copenhagen,1964),p.18.OdenseUniversityPresspublishedaneweditionin1974.3Petersen,p.19.4Ibid.,p.178.6INTRODUCTIONtakenprisonerat6Aynal-Tamr.HebecametheslaveofQaysb.Makhramahb.al-Muttalibb.°AbdManafb.Qusayy,andhavingacceptedIslambecamehismawla.ItwasduringcAbdal-Malik’sjreignthatMeccawasbesiegedandtheKabbahdestroyed.ButheJwasalsothecaliphwhoconsolidatedtheArabruleandleftasplendidempire.ForaboutthirtyyearsIbnIshaqlivedinMedinawhereImamMalikandSacidal-Musayyib1werehiscontemporaries.Hewastaughtbymanyteacherswhoweresonsofthesahabah.ThegreatTraditionistal-Zuhriwasamonghisteachers.ThemanwhorousedtheantagonismofImamMalikandtheadmirationofal-Zuhriwasobviouslynotanordinaryperson,andthetimeinwhichhelivedwasnotordinaryeither.Spain,KashgharandMultanwereconqueredwhilehewasstillinMedina.HealsosawthecollapseoftheUmayyadsandtheriseoftheAbbasids.HediedinBaghdadbetween150/767and154/770inthereignofal-Mansur.Muchhasbeenwrittenabouthislife,andhisworkhasbeenevaluatedfromeverypointofview.2Muslimandnon-Muslimscholarshiphas,however,ignoredtheeventswhichtookplaceinhislifetimeandinfluencedhisviewsregardingtheJewslivingunderMuslimrule.OnhisarrivalintheAbbasidcapitalIbnIshaqmusthaveobservedthattheJewishcommunitywhichhadtheappearanceofastate,hadapeculiarconstitution.TheExilarchandtheGaonwereofequalrank.TheExilarch’sofficewaspolitical.HerepresentedBabylonian-PersianJudaismundertheCaliphs.Hecollectedthetaxesfromthevariouscommunities,andpaidthemintothetreasury.TheExilarchs,bothinbearingandmodeoflife,wereprinces.”Theydroveaboutinastatecarriage;theyhadoutridersandakindofbody-guard,andreceivedprincelyhomage1AbuMuhammadSacidb.al-Musayyib(15/636-94/712)wasbornduringthecaliphateofeUmar.Afaqihandmufti,hewashighlyregardedby6UmarII.Al-Zuhri,MakhulandQatadahconsideredhimoneofthegreatestscholars.2SGQlbnSsLcd,Al-Tcibaqatal-Kubra(BQiruU1958),Vol.VII,pp.32ff.;al-Bukharl,Kitabal-Ta9rikhal-Kabir(Hyderabad,1361),Vol.I,p.40;al-Dhahabi,Tadhkiratal-Huffa?(Hyderabad,1956),Vol.I,pp.172-74;IbnIJajaral-cAsqalam,Tahdhibal-Tahdhib(Hyderabad,1326),Vol.IX,pp.38-45;al-Khatibal-Baghdadi,Ta9rikhBaghdad(Cairo,1931),pp.214-34;IbnKhallikan,KitabWafayatal-Acydnwa-Anba9Abnd*al-Zaman,ed.IhsaneAbbas(Beirut,n.d.),Vol.IV,pp.276-7;IbnSayyidal-Nas,^Uyunal-AtharfiFununal-Maghdziwaal-Shama*Hiwa-aUSiyar(Cairo,1356),Vol.I,pp.8-17;JohannFiick,MuhammadIbnIshaq(FrankfurtamMain,1925);J.Horovitz,”TheEarliestBiographiesoftheProphetandtheirAuthors”,IslamicCulture,(1928),pp.169-80;A.Guillaume,TheLifeofMuhammad(London,1955),Introduction;MuhammadHamidullah,MuhammadIbnIshaq(Karachi,1967).7
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MUHAMMADANDTHEJEWSNowthattheExilarcheverywheremetwiththerespectdueaprince,hewasinstalledwithadegreeofceremonyandpompInalargeopenplace,whichwaslavishlyadorned,seatswereerectedforhimandthepresidentsofthetwoschools.TheGaonofSoradeliveredanaddresstothefutureExilarch,inwhichhewasremindedofthedutiesofhisofficeBothofficialsputtheirhandsupontheheadofthenomineeanddeclaredamidsttheclangoftrumpets,”Longliveourlord,thePrinceoftheExile.”1LeonNemoyhasaccusedGraetzofpro-Muslimbiasandsaidthat”Graetzmustbearalargeshareoftheblame”forthecurrentillusionthatJewishlifeundertheruleoftheCrescentwassomehowfareasierthanitwasundertheswayoftheCross.2WhatGraetzwroteabouttheExilarchateisfactuallycorrectandissupportedbyMargolisandMarx3,Hirschberg,4andBashan5.ButGraetzwrotehishistoryin1894undertheshadowoftheDreyfusaffair,andLeonNemoywrotehiswordsofcriticismin1956,probablyontheeveoftheIsraelioccupationofGazaandSinai.Itisnotthefactswhichhavechanged,itistheperspective.Graetzispre-Herzl(thefirstZionistCongresswasheldinBaselin1897),Nemoyispost-Israeli.ButevenGoitein,whosebookNemoywasreviewing,aftercautiousqualificationsadmitsthatundertheAbbasidstheReshGaluthaoccupiedaveryhonouredpositionasthegeneralrepresentativeoftheJewishcommunity.AccordingtoaChristiansource,hehadprecedenceovertheChristiandignitariesattheCaliph’scourt,butasarulehehadnoadministrativefunctionwithintheMuslimstate.HewasaddressedbytheMuslimsas’OurLord,thesonofDavid’,andasDavidisdescribedintheKoranasoneofthegreatestprophets,naturallyhisofficewassurroundedbythehaloofsanctityOffargreaterimportancefortheJewsinIslamiccountriesthantheofficeoftheReshGaluthawasanotherecumenicaldignity,thatoftheGaon,whichbecameindeedsoprominentinJewishlifeduringthefirstfivecenturiesofIslamthatthesearelabelledinJewishhistoryas’theGaonicPeriod’.GaonwasthetitlebornebytheheadsofthetwogreatJewishacademiesofBabylonia-Iraq(originallyonlyone1Graetz,Vol.Ill,pp.93-94.2ReviewofS.D.Goitein’sbookJewsandArabs,TheJewishQuarterlyReview,Vol.XLVI,No.4,1956,p.386.3MaxL.MargolisandAlexanderMarx,AHistoryoftheJewishPeople,(NewYork,1965),pp.254-57.4HaimZ’ewHirschberg,”Abbasids”,EncyclopaediaJudaica(Jerusalem,1971),Vol.H,Cols.42-3.5EliezerBashan,”Exilarch”,EncyclopaediaJudaica,Vol.VI,Cols.1023-34.8’INTRODUCTIONofthetwo)whowereregardedbyJewsallovertheworldasthehighestauthorityinallreligiousmatters,whichtobesure,alsoincludedatthattimecivillaw.1WhileIbnIshaqwasstillinMedina,aSyrian,Serene(Serenus)2bynameclaimedtobetheMessiahandheldoutthepromiseofamiraculousrestorationofPalestine.HesethimselfupnotonlyasaprophetoftheJewsbutalsoasaprophetoftheMuslims.Heabolishedthedietarylaws,allowedmarriagewithoutamarriagecontractand”inscribedthereleasefromTalmudicalOrdinances”uponhisbanner.3HisfamespreadasfarasSpain,whichwasnowunderMuslimrule,and”theJewsofthatcountryresolvedtoabandontheirpropertyandtoplacethemselvesundertheleadershipofthepseudo-Messiah”.4HewasfinallycapturedandbroughtbeforeYazidII(101/720-105/725),whohandedhimintothehandsofJews.HewassentencedtodeathbyaJewish-Muslimcourt.5WithinlessthanaquarterofacenturyAbuMuslimhoistedtheblackflagofrevoltatMerv,andAbual-cAbbas,aftereliminatingtheUmayyads,proclaimedhimselfCaliphin132/749.Hissuccessoral-MansurtreacherouslymurderedAbuMuslimin137/755.IranandspeciallyKhurasan,whichwasloyaltoAbuMuslim,oncemorebecameacentreofstormsandrevolutions.Newuprisingsfollowed.Sinbadh(140/757)6,Ustadhsis(149/766-151/768)7,al-Muqannac(161/777-164/780)8rosetoavengeAbuMuslim’sdeath.Allofthemwerecrushedbyal-Mansur.Itwassometimeduringthisperiod,butbeforetheSirahwascompiled,thatasecondJewishMessiaharoseinthestrongJewishcentreofIsfahan.IbncIsaObadiah9claimedthatPalestinewastobe1Goitein,pp.120-121.DuringthefirsthundredyearsofFatimidruletheGaon,orheadoftheJerusalemAcademy,occupiedasimilarpositionwithregardtotheJewsoftheFatimidempire.SeeGoitein,AMediterraneanSociety,Vol.II,pp.5-18,519-524.2Thereseemstobeconsiderablecontroversyabouthisname.3Graetz,Vol.Ill,p.120.4Ibid.,p.121.5MargolisandMarx,p.259.6EdwardG.Browne,ALiteraryHistoryofPersia(London,1928),Vol.I,p.313.7Ibid.,p.317.8Ibid.,p.318.9Thenameisvariouslygiven.TheEncyclopaediaJudaicaversionhasbeenfollowed.Hyamson(infran.2onp.10)givesitasIsaacbenYacqubObadiahAbucIsaal-lsfahanj.ShahrastamcallshimIshaqb.Yacqub(infran.1onp.10).9
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MUHAMMADANDTHEJEWSrestorednotbyamiraclebutbyforce.HecalledtheJewstohisstandardandsometenthousandJewscollectedunderhisleadershiphailinghimastheMessiah.1Hisuprisingwaswell-timed,sincetheAbbasidCaliphatewasstillnotconsolidated.”TheaffairsoftheKhalifatewereatthatperiodinachaoticcondition,andamilitarymovement,suchasIsaac’ssoonbecame,hadgoodchancesofsuccess”.2IbncIsahadplannedtojoinforceswithaPersianrebelchiefagainsttheCaliph,butal-MansurdefeatedhimatRayy,wherehefellinbattle.3″Thesemessianicuprisings”,Grayzelobserves,”werebasedonastrangemixtureofideas.ThedesireofafairlylargenumberofJewstothrowofftheyokeoftheirnewMohammedanmasterswasboundup,somehow,withrebelliousnessagainstJewishauthority.”4ItisdifficulttosayhowtheauthoroftheSirahreactedtotheseevents.Asaconfidentmemberofthedominantelitehecouldignoretherevolts,smuglylookatJewishprosperityandfreedomunderIslamanddealwiththehistoryoftheJewsintheHijazduringthelifeoftheApostlewithdetachment.OrdidtheimpactofthemessianicmovementsjuxtaposedwiththepompandshowoftheExilarchgivehimanimpressionofJewishinfidelityandungratefulness?Werehisreporters(whowerethesonsofconvertedJews)5awareoftheseevents,nervousandoutdoingtheArabMuslimsintheirloyaltybyembellishingtheirreportsabouttheJewsofMedina?OneistemptedtospeculateŠandnotwithoutreasonŠthattheB.Qaynuqac,theB.al-NadlrandabovealltheB.QurayzahwerenotsomuchpartofthemaghazioftheApostleasmuchasawarningtotheJewsoftheAbbasidempire:’onemoreIbncIsaandyouwillbeexterminatedliketheB.Qurayzah’.ItisidletoaskwhetherIbnIshaqwasnothearingtheechoesofthetrumpetsattheinstallationoftheExilarchretro-1MaimonidesIggeretTeman,videIsraelFriedlander,”JewishArabicStudies”,TheJewishQuarterlyReview,Vol.I(1910-11),p.206.Shahrastani;Al-Milalwaal-Nihal(Cairo,1968),Vol.I,p.180,saysalargecrowdofJewsfollowedhim.2AlbertM.Hyamson,”Messiahs(Pseudo-)”,EncyclopaediaofReligionandEthics(NewYork,1916),Vol.Ill,p.582.3InadditiontoShahrastaniandMaimonidesseeGraetz,Vol.Ill,p.124-5,andMargolisandMarx,p.259.4SolomonGrayzel,AHistoryoftheJews(NewYork,1968),p.245.5IbnJIajarAl-cAsqalani,Tahdhibal-Tahdhib,IX,p.45./.1(TINTRODUCTIONspectivelywhenthecamelcaravanoftheunluckyB.al-NadirwounditswayfromMedinatoKhaybar.ItwasonsuchanoccasionwhenNoldekesimplyremarked:”Itmayhavebeenso;butmaybeitwasentirelydifferent,”1Butonethingiscertain:IbnIshaq’sattitude,asweshallseelaterinourexaminationofhisreports,isconsistentlytiltedagainsttheJewsoftheHijaz.IbnIshaqhasbeencommendedbytheearlyMuslimrijalspecialistsandmodernscholarsŠMuslimandnon-Muslim.Though”asisusualintheliteratureofdjarhwatadil,wefindtheearlyMuslimcriticsexpressingdiametricallyopposedjudgmentsonIbnIshak”,2themajorityholdshiminhighregard.Al-Zuhridescribedhimas”themostknowledgeableofmeninmaghazi”2*andcAsimb.cUmarb.Qatadahsaidthat”knowledgewillremainamongstusaslongasIbnIshaqlives”.4Shucbahb.al-Hajjaj(85/704-160/776)describedhimtheamirofTraditionistsbecauseofhismemory.5Sufyanb.cUyaynah(107/725-198/813)saidhedidnotknowanyonewhoaccused(yattahim)IbnIshaq(inHadith).6ImamShaficisaid,”hewhowantstostudythemaghaziindepthshouldconsultIbnIshaq”.7Yahyab.MacinandImamAhmadb.Hanbalconsideredhimtrustworthy.8Malikb.Anas,however,calledhima”dajjal(charlatan)whobelongstothedajdjilah”.9Accordingtovariousversions,Hishamb.^UrwahalsodidnotconsiderIbnIshaqworthyofcredence.10The1QuotedbyFranzRosenthalinhisintroductiontoCharlesCutlerTorrey,TheJewishFoundationofIslam,p.7.2J.M.B.Jones,”IbnIshak”,EncyclopaediaofIslam,newed.,Vol.III,pp.810-811.3IbnSayyidal-Nas,cUyunal-AtharfiFununal-Maghaziwaal-Shamd°iliwaal-Siyar(Cairo,1356),Vol.I,p.8.Thoughalatewriter(d.734/1334),IbnSayyidal-NascollectedalltheavailablereferencestoIbnIshaq,bothfavourableandunfavourableandthentriedtodefendhimagainsthiscritics.Inhisintroductionto°Uyun(pp.5-21)IbnSayyidal-NashasprovidedthemostcomprehensivesummaryofMuslimopinionofIbnIshaq.4Ibid.,p.9;Tahdhib,Vol.IX,p.44.5Al-Bukhari,KitabTa*rikhal-Kabir,Vol.I.p.40.6Ibid.;IbnKhallikan,Vol.IV,p.276.7IbnKhallikan,Vol.IV,p.276.8Ibid.,pp.276-7;IbnSayyidal-Nas,pp10-11.9Yaqut,Mu^jamal-Udaba*,(Cairo,1935-38),II,p.400.10Seeforfullerdiscussion,JosephHorovitz,”TheEarliestBiographiesoftheProphetandtheirAuthors”,IslamicCulture,April1928,pp.169-80;Hamidullah(1967).11
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MUHAMMADANDTHEJEWSmostpertinentcriticism,fromourpointofview,isIbnIshaq’smethodof”tracingtheghazawdtoftheProphetbymeansofthesonsoftheJewswhohadbecomeMuslimsandrememberedthestoryofKhaybarandothermatters”.1Dealingwiththischargeandthequarrelbet-weenIbnIshaqandthegreatTraditionistMalikb.Anas,IbnSayyidal-NasconcludesthatbothofthemwerefinallyreconciledandwhenIbnIshaqleftMedinaforIraqMalikgavehimfiftydinarsandhalfofhisdatecropoftheyearasagift.MalikdidnotintendtomalignhimasaTraditionistbuthedidquestionhisacceptanceofthereportsofKhaybar,Qurayzahandal-NadfrandsuchotherunattestedeventsfromtheJewishconverts(fromtheirfathers).IbnIshaqfollowedthesereportsinhismaghaziwithoutnecessarilyascertainingthetruefactswhereasMalikhimselfdidnotreportexceptfromreliablemen.2AsweshallseewhileexaminingthevariousreportsofIbnIshaq,thechargedoesnotseemtobewithoutsubstance.Whileconvertsfromonereligiontoanotherarenotnecessarilyunreliable,ahistorianshouldcloselyscrutinizereportsemanatingfromthem.Theveryfactoftheirconversionmeansthattheyconsideredtheattitude,thepolicyandtheactionoftheirerstwhileco-religionistsobjectionable,iftheyweresincereintheirconversion;itwasexpedienttodisassociatethemselvesfromtheiraction,iftheconversionwasforced.Inanycasetheirtendencyinrememberingandreproducingtheeventsoftheirpastorthepastoftheirancestorsdirectlyinvolvedinconflictswiththeirnewco-religionistwillbesubconsciouslyŠandsometimesdeliberatelyŠprejudicialtothetaskofascertainingtruefacts.Onemight,however,askinparenthesisifMalikb.Anas’schargewasfair.Itshowsalatter-dayprejudiceagainsttheJewishconverts.WhyshouldtheybelessreliablethanthesonsofthepaganArabconverts?WouldtheMuslimsonsofthoseMeccanpaganswhofoughttheApostlenotdistorttheroleoftheirancestorsinthesamemannerasthesonsoftheJewishconverts,togainacceptability?TheirreportsneedasmuchverificationasthoseoftheJewishconverts.ReferringtoIbnIshaq’smethodologyofreportingtheeventsinMedinaHorovitzobserves:Heretheisnddistherule,andtheauthoritiesofIbnIshaqarehisMedinateachers,aboveallal-Zuhri,cAsimibncUmarandGAbdullahibnAbiBakr,towhomalsoheisalreadyindebtedforthechronologicalscaffoldingForthepresentationof1Tahdhib,VolIX,p,45.2IbnSayyidal-Nas,Vol.I,p.17.12,,INTRODUCTIONtheactualMaghazi,IbnIshaqemploysafixedscheme;hesendsabriefcomprehensivestatementofcontentsoninfront,followsitupwithacollectiveaccountcomposedofthestatementsofhisweightiestteachersandcompletesthisprincipalaccountbyindividualreportsgatheredbyhimfromothersources.Horovitz’observationsaremainlyvalidasfarasIbnIshaq’sgeneralnarrativeisconcerned.HisaccountofthefourJewishmaghazi,however,isatvariancewithhisgeneralscheme.’Asimb.cUmarbQatadahisthemaininformantoftheimportanteventsmtheaffairoftheB.Qaynuqa4andnoJewishreporterisinvolved.Thedeporta-tionoftheB.al-Nadiralsofollowsthegeneralpattern.ThemamstorybeginswithYazidb.RumanreportingitdirecttoIbnIshaq.WiththeB.Qurayzahthepatternseemstobreakdown.Mostofthemainevents,asweshallsee,arenotprecededbyisnads.Severalreliablereporterslikeal-ZuhriandQatadahappearduringthenarrative,butacloserexaminationdisclosesthattheyarereportingminordetails,notthemajorevents.TheaccountoftheexpeditiontotheKhaybarpresentsthesamemixtureofreports,somebasedonisnads,otherswithoutisnads.Againonecomesacrossimportantnamesprecedingsomereports,butmostofthempertaintoeitherjuristicmattersorminordetails.T,ItmightperhapsbesafetosaythatgenerallyspeakingIbnIshaqdoesnotgiveisnadsoncrucialmattersconcerningtheB.Qurayzahor’theJewsofKhaybar.WritingonIbnIshaq’suseoftheisnadRobsonagreeswiththeobservationofHorovitzquotedaboveandgoesontosay:Hecommonlybeginshistreatmentofsomeincidentbyageneralstatementofwhathappenedwithoutanyauthoritybeingquotedbutthisismerelyhismethodofintroducingthesubject,forheusuallygoesontogiveisnadsofvariouskindsfordetailsoftheincident,ortopresentdifferentstatementsofwhathappened.Robsonfurtherobserves:IbnIshaqisquiteopenabouthismethods.Hedoesnotclaimthatalltheinformationhegivesisfullofauthority,nordoeshetrytotraceeverythingbacktotheProphet.Wemaythereforebeinclinedtotrusthimwhenhedoesquotedirectauthoritiesandwhenhegivesconnectedisnads?WhenIbnIshaqdoesnotgiveanisnadheiseitherdealingwithmaterial1Horovitz,IC(1928),p.176.2JamesRobson,”IbnIshaq’sUseoftheIsnad”,BulletinoftheJohnRylandsLibrary,Vol.38,1955-56,p.451.3Ibid.,p.457.13
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