The Environment Agency is the leading public body protecting and improving the environment in England and. Wales. It’s our job to make sure that air,
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ii Science Report Œ An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies The Environment Agency is the leading public body protecting and improving the environment in England and Wales. It™s our job to make sure that air, land and water are looked after by everyone in today™s society, so that tomorrow™s generations inherit a cleaner, healthier world. Our work includes tackling flooding and pollution incidents, reducing industry™s impacts on the environment, cleaning up rivers, coastal waters and contaminated land, and improving wildlife habitats. This work was delivered by the Environment Agency’s science programme and jointly funded by the EA, Defra and WRAP. Published by: Environment Agency, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almondsbury, Bristol, BS32 4UD Tel: 01454 624400 Fax: 01454 624409 www.environment-agency.gov.uk ISBN: 978-1-84432-927-4 © Environment Agency Œ October 2008 All rights reserved. This document may be reproduced with prior permission of the Environment Agency. The views and statements expressed in this report are those of the author alone. The views or statements expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the Environment Agency and the Environment Agency cannot accept any responsibility for such views or statements. This report is printed on Cyclus Print, a 100% recycled stock, which is 100% post consumer waste and is totally chlorine free. Water used is treated and in most cases returned to source in better condition than removed. Further copies of this report are available from: The Environment Agency™s National Customer Contact Centre by emailing: enquiries@environment-agency.gov.uk or by telephoning 08708 506506. Author(s): Simon Aumônier Michael Collins Peter Garrett Dissemination Status: Released to all regions Publicly available Keywords: nappies, reusable, disposable, life cycle assessment, LCA, cloth, environmental, impacts Research Contractor: Environmental Resources Management Eaton House, Wallbrook Court North Hinksey Lane Oxford OX2 0QS Environment Agency™s Project Manager: Terry Coleman, Science Department Science Project Number: SC010018 Product Code: SCHO0808BOIR-E-P
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Science Report Œ An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies iii Science at the Environment Agency Science underpins the work of the Environment Agency. It provides an up-to-date understanding of the world about us and helps us to develop monitoring tools and techniques to manage our environment as efficiently and effectively as possible. The work of the Environment Agency™s Science Department is a key ingredient in the partnership between research, policy and operations that enables the Environment Agency to protect and restore our environment. The science programme focuses on five main areas of activity: Setting the agenda, by identifying where strategic science can inform our evidence-based policies, advisory and regulatory roles; Funding science, by supporting programmes, projects and people in response to long-term strategic needs, medium-term policy priorities and shorter-term operational requirements; Managing science, by ensuring that our programmes and projects are fit for purpose and executed according to international scientific standards; Carrying out science , by undertaking research Œ either by contracting it out to research organisations and consultancies or by doing it ourselves; Delivering information, advice, tools and techniques, by making appropriate products available to our policy and operations staff. Steve Killeen Head of Science
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iv Science Report ΠAn updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies Contents Science at the Environment Agency iii Contents iv 1 Introduction and scope 1 1.1 Number of changes 2 1.2 Product systems and system boundaries 3 1.3 The disposable nappy system 3 1.4 Home laundered reusable nappy systems Πshaped and prefold 6 1.5 Inclusions/exclusions 9 1.6 Key assumptions and limitations 10 1.7 Data requirements 10 1.8 Inventory analysis and impact assessment 11 2 Inventory data for disposable nappies 12 2.1 Disposable nappy number, weight and manufacture 12 2.2 Waste management 12 3 Inventory data for reusable nappies 14 3.1 Shaped nappy number, weight and manufacture 14 3.2 Wraps 14 3.3 Washing data 14 4 Results 21 4.1 Disposable nappies 21 4.2 Shaped nappies 25 5 Conclusions 31 References 32
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Science Report ΠAn updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies 1 1 Introduction and scope This study builds on a previous study for the Environment Agency, entitled Life Cycle Assessment of Disposable and Reusable Nappies in the UK, ISBN: 1-84-432427-3, and is considered an addendum to the previous study. Environmental Resources Management Limited (ERM) was asked by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), the Environment Agency and the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) to update the previous life cycle assessment (LCA) study by assessing the changes in the environmental profile of disposable and reusable nappies that hav e resulted from developments in the manufacture and use of disposable and reusable nappies systems in the UK since 2002/03. Factors addressed in the study included: further weight reduction of disposable nappies, the inclusion of shaped nappies, the changed energy efficiency and different usage of washing machines and driers, and changes to waste disposal options, including the use of reusable nappies for a second child. For this study, ERM aimed to obtain: Updated energy generation data. Updated energy consumption data for washing machines and tumble driers. Updated manufacturing data for disposable nappies. Updated waste management data for disposable nappies. New manufacturing data for shaped nappies. New manufacturing data for prefold nappies (not obtained, so were excluded from the study). The goal of the study was split into the following objectives. To update the previous study with changes in the marketplace between 2002/03 and 2005/06, to include an assessment of the effects of a range of behavioural assumptions on the life cy cle environmental impacts of the reusable nappy types, and to compare these with each other and with modern disposable nappies. To compile a detailed life cycle inventory of the environmental burdens associated with the production, use and disposal of shaped and prefold reusable(1) nappies and disposable nappies. To use the life cycle inventory data to compare the environmental impacts arising from reusable and disposable nappies under a variety of scenarios. The study aimed to assess the scale, and to explain the significance, of the environmental impact of nappies, through si mplification of parameters and clearly defined scenarios. These included consideratio n of how actions that can be, and have been, undertaken by manufacturers and users of nappies affect their environmental profiles.
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2 Science Report Œ An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies The project was governed by a board comprising Defra, WRAP and the Environment Agency. The board agreed that ERM would consider up to 10 scenarios:, four for disposable nappies, and six for reusable nappies. The board also specified the scenarios to be assessed. The scope of the study is consistent with the previous study, with the exception of the updated data above and the aim of the study to reflect potential impacts in 2006. The Environment Agency surveys of both disposable and reusable nappy use for the previous study (Environment Agency, 2004) determined that the average child is out of nappies at two years and two months (for both type of nappy) and that after two and a half years, 95 per cent of all children are out of nappies. The functional unit used here is the same as that used in the previous study (Environment Agency, 2005) and is defined as fithe use of nappies during the first two and a half years of a child™s lifefl . This results in a specific quantity of disposable and reusable nappies used over two and a half years. Although children may still use training pants, and/or overnight nappies, the use of these types of products is outside the scope of this study. Table 1.1 Children wearing nappies by child age (all types of nappy) Age of child Children wearing nappies (%) Children not wearing nappies (%) up to 6 months 100.0% 0.0% 6 to 12 months 95.7% 4.3% 12 to 18 months 82.8% 17.2% 18 to 24 months 45.6% 54.4% 24 to 30 months 17.6% 82.4% 30 to 36 months 4.8% 95.2% 36 to 42 months 1.8% 98.2% 42 to 48 months 0.4% 99.6% 48 to 54 months 0.1% 99.9% 54 to 60 months 0.1% 99.9% 60 to 66 months 0.1% 99.9% Source: Environment Agency surv eys (Environment Agency, 2004) Note: The surveys showed that there is no difference in age out of nappies between children using reusable or disposable nappies. The figures in the table are for disposable nappies, for which there were more results, but were applied to all children. 1.1 Number of changes The UK sales figure for disposable nappies in 2001-2002 provided an average daily use figure of 4.16 nappies a day, based on a market penetration of 96.4 per cent (Environment Agency, 2004). The Environm ent Agency surveys of nappy use found that for disposable nappies the average number of changes per day decreased from an average of seven at birth to an average of five at two and a half years. When those children no longer in nappies at any age are included, the number of changes averaged over all children from birth to two and a half years was between 4.05 and 4.4 per day. The Environment Agency concluded that a daily number of changes of 4.16 suggested by the sales figures was support ed by the surveys. An overall average
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4 Science Report Œ An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies Table 1.2 Average UK Disposable Nappy Composition and Weight (2006) Total Fluff pulp SAP PP LDPE Adhesives PET/polyeste r Other Units g % % % % % % % Average unit weight 38.6 34.1 32.4 16.6 6.0 3.8 2.2 4.8 Using the average of 4.16 nappies used per day, and an average nappy weight of 38.6g, an average child will use 146.5kg of nappies over the two and a half year period considered here. The manufacturers of disposable nappies have provided manufacturing data representative of 2006 conditions. These data were used to characterise an ‚average™ manufacturing plant based on market share. The study included all the significant processes, tracing material and energy flows to the point where materials are extracted from or emitted to the natural environment. Due to the complexity of the product system, it is impractical to draw a full system diagram that includes all processes where human influence occurs. Figure 1.1 details the main life cycle stages that are included in the life cycle of disposable nappies. 1.3.1 Disposable nappy scenarios For the disposable nappy systems, alternative scenarios are limited, as these would require action from the manufacturers and or action from local authorities for the provision of alternative waste management systems. The manufacturers have reduced the envir onmental impact of disposable nappies through product design and development. Since 2001/02, the industry has reduced nappy weight by 13.5 per cent through design changes and the development of improved materials. The industry anticipates that this scale of reduction will continue in the short term. We have assessed the potential implication of future light-weighting in a sensitivity analysis. Alternative waste management routes for disposable nappies include separate collection for anaerobic digestion or recycling and diversion with household waste through MBT. Examples of recycling or digestion schemes that have been offered include: Almere (diaper biowaste household collection and biodigesting) project in Holland. Knowaste LLC who have reported diaper recycling programs in the European Union, Asia and North America. Due to a lack of detailed process data for nappies in these processes, ERM has used sensitivity analysis to estimate the environmental impacts associated with alternative waste management routes.
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Science Report ΠAn updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies 5 Figure 1.1 System Boundary for the Disposable Nappy System TPackaging Production Disposable Nappy Production Electricity Generation Landfill Waste Recycling TRetail Use Waste Recycling TLandfill Incineration Environment: Resources Environment: Air, Land and Water ENERGYSUPPLYSYSTEMSOTHERPROD U CTSYSTEMSTimber production Pulp Production & Bleaching Production of Feedstock Polymers SAP Production Production of Plastic Components Acrylic Acid Production NaOH Production TTTTTTTTTTTTPackaging Production Disposable Nappy Production Electricity Generation Landfill Waste Recycling TRetail Use Waste Recycling TLandfill Incineration Environment: Resources Environment: Air, Land and Water ENERGYSUPPLYSYSTEMSOTHERPROD U CTSYSTEMSTimber production Pulp Production & Bleaching Production of Feedstock Polymers SAP Production Production of Plastic Components Acrylic Acid Production NaOH Production TTTTTTTTTTTNote: The main transport steps between processes and life cycle stages have been included in the assessment. Waste management activities associated with production and the supply chain have also been included in the assessment.
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6 Science Report Œ An updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies 1.4 Home laundered reusable nappy systems Œ shaped and prefold In the previous study, terry and prefold nappies were assessed, as these were the most popular in 2002/03. However, subsequent market analysis by WRAP ( pers. comm . Julian Parfitt, WRAP) indicates that shaped and prefold nappies now have the greatest market share. This study was only able to consider home laundered shaped nappies, because no updated manufacturing data on prefolds was made available by the industry. There are several types of reusable cotton nappies. Nearly all are fitted and fastened with poppers and or Velcro straps instead of pins. The different nappy systems can be divided into the following categories: All-in-ones – shaped, fitted nappies with Velcro or popper fastenings, which include a waterproof cover. No folding or pinning is required. Shaped nappies – similar to all-in-ones, but wraps or pants have to be purchased separately to provide the waterproof cover. These do not require folding. They are fastened by Velcro or poppers. Prefolds – require folding and a separate waterproof wrap/pant, with fasteners used in some cases. All-in-ones and shaped nappies are generally considered easier to use than flat/prefold nappies, as no folding is required. Shaped nappies either have Velcro or popper fastenings, or rely solely on the wrap/pant to hold them in place. Prefold nappies are made from woven cotton and consist of a large rectangle of fabric that has been folded and stitched into three panels, the centre panel being thicker than the two outer panels. Prefolds are considered to be easier to dry than all-in-ones and shaped nappies. Wraps/pants are used to hold up nappies and to prevent leakage. They are made from different materials and combinations of materials, such as, nylon, polyester, cotton, wool, PVC, EVA, hemp and polyurethanes. Wraps/pants are not considered as durable in use as nappies , and hence may need to be replaced. For any given size, the frequency of replacement is dependent on the care they receive. Following manufacturers™ care guidance is essential for maximising the lifetime of the wrap/pant. Some wraps/pants are adjustable and are designed for use from birth to potty; others are replaced when necessary to fit a growi ng baby. Generally, three different sizes will be needed over the two and a half year period. In combination with the nappies and wraps/pants, parents can use liners and booster pads to improve performance and ease of cleaning. Liners are used to provide a drier layer between the baby and the absorbent nappy and to assist in containment of faecal matter for ease of cleaning. Liners come in reusable or disposable forms. Materials used include: paper; polypropylene; fleece; and silk. It is sometimes necessary to boost the performance of a nappy by using booster pads. These pads have not been included in the assessment.
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Science Report ΠAn updated lifecycle assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies 7 The major retail routes for reusables appear to be through high street shops, mail order and via the Internet. Figure 1.2 details the main life cycle stages that have been included in the life cycle of home laundered shaped (sized) nappies. All key material, energy and waste streams are traced to the point at which environm ental flows cross the system boundary. Reusable nappies are sold in birth to potty packs and ERM used samples of these packs, together with data provided by suppliers, to specify reusable nappy consumption. Table 1.3 details the contents of a shaped nappy birth to potty pack. Manufacturers of each type of reusable nappy were contacted for manufacturing data through the Nappy Alliance. Figure 1.2 System Boundary For Home Laundered Reusable Nappy System Detergent Manufacture Consumer Use Retail and Distribution Packaging Waste Disposal Nappy Construction Sewage Treatment Cotton Cultivation and Harvesting Cotton Ginning Cotton Spinning Fabric Production and Wet Processing Wrap and Liner Manufacture Other Nappy Construction Materials Packaging Production Water Treatment and Supply Fertiliserand Pesticide Production Environment: Resources Environment: Air, Land and Water ENERGYSUPPLYSYSTEMSOTHERPROD UCTSYSTEMSTTTTTTTTDetergent Manufacture Consumer Use Retail and Distribution Packaging Waste Disposal Nappy Construction Sewage Treatment Cotton Cultivation and Harvesting Cotton Ginning Cotton Spinning Fabric Production and Wet Processing Wrap and Liner Manufacture Other Nappy Construction Materials Packaging Production Water Treatment and Supply Fertiliserand Pesticide Production Environment: Resources Environment: Air, Land and Water ENERGYSUPPLYSYSTEMSOTHERPROD UCTSYSTEMSTTTTTTTTNote: The main transport steps between processes and life cycle stages have been included in the assessment. Waste disposal activities associated with production and the supply chain have also been included in the assessment.
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